Threatened American Identity & Hostile Immigration Attitudes in the United States Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By, Allyson F. Shortle, B.A. Graduate Program in Political Science The Ohio State University 2012 Dissertation Committee: Paul A. Beck (Advisor) Thomas E. Nelson Eric L. McDaniel Irfan Nooruddin ©Copyright by Allyson F. Shortle 2012 i Abstract This dissertation asks why Americans tend to express hostile immigration policy attitudes. Specifically, I ask why citizens are willing to voice hostility toward policies that implicate illegal immigrants, while they are unwilling to voice hostile attitudes toward policies that implicate legal immigrants. Current explanations offer some insights into these puzzling patterns of hostility, with some citing symbolic factors and others arguing that material factors are at the center of public opinion about immigration. However, research thus far has failed to demonstrate a consistent effect arising from any one factor, especially in offering an explanation for the disproportionate amount of hostility that exists within attitudes toward policies meant to punish and restrict illegal immigrants. I argue that current research lacks a focus upon the relevant factors that can explain the vast amount of hostility within the current policies of today, which implicate illegal immigrants. I contend that hostile immigration policy attitudes are caused primarily by threats to American identity. Individuals feel that immigrants devalue American identity when immigrants receive favorable treatment without demonstrating i that they place positive value on and are attached to American identity. The disproportionate amount of hostility toward illegal immigrants is explained by the fact that citizens react negatively to immigrants they perceive do not demonstrate attachment, by residing in the country illegally. I test this theory drawing on two original, national surveys (N=400 & N=1273). The surveys first provide a wide array of questions about personal attachment to the nation. These questions confirm that individuals are highly attached to the nation, and hold the necessary personal attachment to the nation to make threats to American identity possible. The surveys next provide numerous questions about perceived immigrant (non)attachment to the nation. These questions confirm that citizens do question the attachment of illegal immigrants, particularly in their level of wanting and demonstrating loyalty to America. I find strong evidence to suggest that both personal attachment and immigrant (non)attachment drive hostile immigration attitudes, particularly toward policies that implicate illegal immigrants. Finally, I find strong evidence of an interactive effect of both factors upon hostility. Considered together, these results suggest that threats to American identity are in fact the main determinants of whether an individual is willing to voice a hostile immigration attitude. ii To my mother, Brenda, for your unwavering support and sacrifice. To my husband and closest friend, Lee. iii Acknowledgements I am very grateful for the help I have received over the years to make this project possible. First, I thank my committee members, Paul Allen Beck, Eric L. McDaniel, Thomas Nelson, and Irfan Nooruddin. I thank Paul Beck for consistently providing me with advice about my dissertation, as well as important guidance about my career in general. I thank you for the patience you have shown me, and allowing me to benefit from your insights. I also thank Eric McDaniel for his mentorship throughout this process. Thank you for allowing me to collaborate on research with you, listening to my ideas, and giving me constructive feedback. I owe much gratitude to Thomas Nelson, who was kind enough to allow me to collaborate on research early on during my graduate studies. He was also a large part of the reason that I was drawn to political psychology and public opinion in the first place, and was instrumental in my training while at OSU. Thank you for your support and guidance, Tom. Finally, I would like to thank Irfan Nooruddin for his vital role in shaping my intellectual development. As a teacher and mentor, Irfan has challenged me, in addition to presenting me with opportunities to conduct interesting research, and providing me with invaluable advice about my work and career. While I do not think there is enough appreciation I could ever pay you for the time and effort you have put into helping me, consider this the portion of gratitude that will be microfilmed. Thank you, friend. iv I would also like to thank several other faculty members who helped me along the way while I was at OSU. First, I would like to thank Harwood McClerking for playing a huge role in the development of my ideas while in graduate school. Harwood’s advice was invaluable, and I am very grateful to have benefitted from his mentorship early on in my graduate studies. In addition, I would like to thank Craig Volden for providing me with advice about the job market. Finally, I would like to thank Rick Herrmann for bringing to my attention the various opportunities to work with the Mershon Center for International Studies. Due to his guidance, I was able to fund a portion of this dissertation, and I thank him for his support. I was also very lucky to be surrounded by a wonderful group of friends while at OSU. First, to Scott Powell and Dana Wittmer, who were my closest friends throughout my graduate school experience. There are too many memories to list, and I cherish them all. I especially miss our shared time during coffee breaks, travels near and far, and bacon themed parties. I am incredibly happy that we were able to go through this process together. I also feel grateful for my friendships with Sarah Wilson Sokhey, Anand Sokhey, Quintin Beazer, Daniel Blake, Sarah Bryner, Dustin Carnahan and Dino Christenson. I am especially grateful to have an amazingly supportive husband, Lee, whose constant love, encouragement, and friendship continues to motivate me everyday. I am truly proud to be your wife. You are my closest family and friend. Finally, I could not have accomplished anything had it not been for the immense inspiration of my mother, Brenda Shortle. I thank you, Mom, for always pushing me to pursue my goals and succeed in achieving them. I cannot be more grateful for the v sacrifices you have made to make sure your children have a good life. Thank you for being the best role model in the world. vi Vita January 1, 1983…………………………............. Born in Rutland, VT 2005…………………………………………....... B.A. in Political Science, Union College in Schenectady, NY 2005-2011………………………………………. Graduate Research Assistant, The Ohio State University 2011-present…………………………………….. Acting Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of Oklahoma Publications McDaniel, Eric L., Irfan Nooruddin, and Allyson Shortle. 2011. “Divine Boundaries: How Religion Shapes Citizens’ Attitudes Toward Immigrants.” American Politics Research. Nelson, Thomas, Dana Wittmer, and Allyson Shortle. 2009. “Value Recruitment in the Debate Over Teaching Evolution.” In Winning with Words: The Origins of Framing. Brian Schaffner and Patrick Sellers, Eds. New York: Routledge Press, pp. 11-40. Fields of Study Major Field of Study: American Politics vii Table of Contents Abstract......................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... iii Vita ............................................................................................................................. vii Table of Contents..................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................... xii The Argument in Brief.............................................................................................. 4 Chapter Outline......................................................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Threatened American Identity & Hostile Immigration Attitudes... 11 Introduction............................................................................................................. 11 The Rule of Law Questioned .............................................................................. 13 Disclaimer about Expressed & Latent Hostilities............................................... 15 Importance .............................................................................................................. 16 Organization............................................................................................................ 18 Historical Context of Immigrant Labels ................................................................. 19 The Puzzle of the Hostility Disparity & the Anti-Illegal Fixation.......................... 22 Past Fixation on Legal Immigration ................................................................... 24 Current Fixation on Illegal Immigration............................................................. 26 Existing Explanations ............................................................................................. 29 General limitations.............................................................................................