Copyright © , by University of Jyväskylä ABSTRACT Vaarakallio, Tuula ”Rotten to the Core”. Variations of French nationalist anti-system rhetoric. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä, 2004, 194 p. (Jyväskylä Studies in Education, Psychology and Social Research) ISSN 0075-4625; 250) ISBN 951-39-1991-9 Finnish summary Diss. One of the main components (topoi) of the politics of the French nationalists since the late 19th century has been the rhetoric against the existing ”system,” that is the discourse against the representative form of democracy, the parliamentary form of government and the political establishment. This study focuses on the nationalist anti-system rhetoric at the turn of the 20th and the turn of the 21st centuries, namely on Boulangism (1886-1889) and its representative Maurice Barrès (1862- 1923), the nationalist Charles Maurras (1868-1952), and the contemporary radical right movement, the Front National (1972-). This study aims to carry out a detailed and politically oriented exploration of the changes that can be detected in this rejection from the time of Boulanger to that of the Front National. Methodologically, the study is neither strictly rhetorical nor historical but is instead located somewhere between these two approaches. The main objective is to distinguish the political assumptions and commitments that lie behind the terminology of the political programs not only by analyzing the attack against parliamentarism and the ”deteriorated” establishment but also by examining the ”political alternative” provided, that is, for example the populist calls for direct democracy. The use of antithetical pairs clearly typifies this kind of nationalist rhetoric, and the dichotomy between ”the real nation” and ”the legal nation” is a specific emblematic manifestation of how in the nationalist discourse ”the true political essence” is distinguished from the ”the false political appearance,” thereby serving as a basis for the nationalist attempt at achieving ”one truth or one essence” The study illustrates how nationalist politics actually aims at harmonizing political life and simplifying politics, not only by demanding firm authority and relying directly on the people by means of referenda but also by avoiding political struggles, ”vain” politicking and useless parliamentary discussions. Although there are variations in the rhetoric of the various political agents and ideologists covered in this study, one may nevertheless conclude that the call for national coherence and political unanimity on the one hand, and the renunciation of pluralism, political alternatives and contingency on the other, seem to prevail. Keywords: nationalism, populism, extremist movements, France, right-wing parties, rhetoric, parliamentarism. Author’s Address Tuula Vaarakallio Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy/ Political Science University of Jyväskylä Supervisor Professor Kari Palonen Professor of Political Science Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy University of Jyväskylä Reviewers Professor Kyösti Pekonen Professor of Political Science Department of Political Science University of Helsinki Senior Assistant Klaus Sondermann Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy/ Political Science University of Jyväskylä Opponent Professor Jeremy Jennings Professor of Political Theory Department of Political Science and International Studies University of Birmingham ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Although preparing a doctoral dissertation is primarily rather lonely work, there are nevertheless a number of people who have been involved in the completion of this research in one way or another to whom I would like to express my gratitude. I have received financial support for this research from the Finnish Cultural Foundation and the University of Jyväskylä; This study has been made possible by Rector’s scholarships as well as scholarships from the Faculty of Social Sciences and the Department of Social Science and Philosophy/Political Science. The Library of Parliament in Helsinki has provided me with a peaceful space to work, for which I am grateful. I also want to thank all the helpful Library staff, especially Hilkka Salasmaa from the Interlibrary Loans for her effectiveness in the procurement of often hard-to-find literary sources from abroad. I owe a great deal of thanks to the supervisor of my thesis, Kari Palonen, who directed me with his thorough competence and invaluable advice. It is an honour for a student to have such a well-learned person serve as her advisor – an advisor who went to great lengths in helping me to carry out this task. I would like to extend my sincerest thanks to him. I would also like to extend my warm thanks to the reviewers of this thesis, Kyösti Pekonen and Klaus Sondermann, for their useful comments on the manuscript. I also want to express many thanks to Elizabeth Moulton for her careful correction of my English, and to Kari Hulkko, who designed and illustrated the cover picture. Finally, my most heartfelt thanks go to my husband, Sampo Vaarakallio, who has patiently been both a father and a mother to our children, Opri and Artemi, during the most intense parts of the writing process. I also want to thank my father, Asko Väisänen, for his encouragement. I dedicate this book to the memory of my mother, Liisa Väisänen – her last words to me were ”remember me”. Helsinki, October 2004 T.V. CONTENTS ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1 INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................9 1.1 Primary concepts and aim of the study .............................................. 11 1.2 Being against........................................................................................... 18 1.3 The presentation of the narrative ......................................................... 23 2 BOULANGISM – A MOVEMENT TOWARD MASS POLITICS.............. 25 2.1 General historical background ............................................................ 25 2.2 The excursion to the ”politique du peuple” ...................................... 29 3 ATTACK ON THE THIRD REPUBLIC ........................................................ 34 3.1 Boulangism against parliamentarism ................................................. 37 3.2 The revisionist program of Boulangism ............................................. 42 3.2.1 The Parliament ..............................................................................46 3.2.2 Firm government ..........................................................................49 3.2.3 Popular sovereignty ..................................................................... 51 3.3 Maurice Barrès: from an assault against futile parliamentary discussion ................................................................................................ 56 3.4 ...to the tacit approval of the government by discussion ................. 65 3.5 Toward the simplification of politics .................................................. 70 4 FOR THE PEOPLE AND AGAINST ILLEGITIMATE ELITES – THE PAYS RÉEL VERSUS THE PAYS LÉGAL ....................................... 72 4.1 ”Les petits” versus ”les gros” .............................................................. 75 4.2 The social question ................................................................................ 80 4.3 Hero worship .........................................................................................86 4.4 The people: a vague yet effective rhetorical figure ........................... 89 4.5 ”The nationalistic people” .................................................................... 92 5 CHARLES MAURRAS’ POLEMICS AGAINST THE REPUBLIC ........... 95 5.1 Integral nationalism ..............................................................................97 5.2 Contempt for the masses .................................................................... 100 5.3 Against political struggles .................................................................. 106 5.4 Political expertise and firm authority ............................................... 110 5.5 Foreign elements and national salvation ......................................... 114 5.6 For ”the real France” ........................................................................... 116 6 THE FIFTH REPUBLIC ................................................................................ 119 6.1 The legal and political framework .................................................... 119 7 THE FRONT NATIONAL’S QUESTIONING OF THE FIFTH REPUBLIC ................................................................................ 127 7.1 The Parliament .....................................................................................131 7.2 The establishment ................................................................................138 7.3 The sovereignty of the people ............................................................ 143 7.4 National preference .............................................................................150 7.5 Electoral protest –The case of the ”political earthquake” in 2002 ...................................................................................................160 7.6 Democracy for the people .................................................................. 164 8 CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................167 8.1 An appeal to essence ........................................................................... 167 8.2 Continuity in