JEHOVAH’S WITNESSES History The Adventist movement emerged in the 1830s around the predictions of William Miller, who proclaimed that Jesus Christ would return in 1843 or 1844. When Christ did not return as Miller prophecied, Adventists divided into a number of factions. During the 1870s, Charles Taze Russell established himself as an independent and controversial Adventist teacher. He rejected belief in hell as a place of eternal torment and adopted a non-Trinitarian theology that denied the divinity of Jesus. He also interpreted the Second Coming in accordance with the literal translation of the original Greek term, parousia (“presence”), suggesting that Christ would come as an invisible presence and that the Parousia, or “Millennial Dawn,” already had occurred, in 1874. The coming of Christ’s invisible presence signaled the end of the current order of society and would be followed by his visible presence and the establishment of the millennial kingdom on earth in 1914. Although the kingdom did not come, Russell’s teachings motivated a number of volunteers to circulate his many books and pamphlets and a periodical, The Watchtower, and to recalculate the time of the Parousia. In addition to the International Bible Students Association, Russell formed the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (1884), with himself as president. In 1909 he transferred the headquarters of the movement to Brooklyn. Russell was succeeded as president in 1917 by Joseph Franklin Rutherford (Judge Rutherford; 1869–1942), who changed the group’s name to Jehovah’s Witnesses in 1931 to emphasize its members’ belief that Jehovah, or Yahweh, is the true God and that the Witnesses were his specially chosen followers. Rutherford molded the Witnesses into a cadre of dedicated evangelists, even equipping members with portable phonographs to play his “sermonettes” on street corners and in the living rooms of prospective converts. Under Rutherford’s leadership, Russell’s group became a tightly knit organization. Rutherford’s successor, Nathan Homer Knorr (1905–77), assumed the presidency in 1942 and continued and expanded Rutherford’s policies. He established the Watch Tower Bible School of Gilead (South Lansing, New York) to train missionaries and leaders, decreed that all the society’s books and articles were to be published anonymously, and set up adult lay-education programs to train Witnesses to teach prospective converts. Under Knorr’s direction, a group of Witnesses produced a new translation of the Bible. Knorr was followed as president of the Jehovah’s Witnesses by Frederick W. Franz (1893–1992) in 1978 and then by Milton G. Henschel in 1992 (1920–2003). In 2000 Henschel stepped down in a reorganization of the leadership and was replaced by Don A. Adams. The movement’s headquarters were transferred to Warwick, New York, in 2016. Beliefs Witnesses hold a number of traditional Christian views but also many that are unique to them. They affirm that God—Jehovah—is the most high. Jesus Christ is God’s agent, through whom sinful humans can be reconciled to God. The Holy Spirit is the name of God’s active force in the world. Witnesses believe that they are living in the last days, and they look forward to the imminent establishment of God’s kingdom on earth, which will be headed by Christ and jointly administered by 144,000 human corulers (Revelation 7:4). Those who acknowledge Jehovah in this life will become members of the millennial kingdom; those who reject him will not go to hell but will face total extinction. New members are baptized by immersion and are expected to live by a strict code of personal conduct. Marriage is considered a holy covenant, and divorce is disapproved of except in cases of adultery. Witnesses participate in the annual commemoration of Christ’s death, celebrated on 14 Nisan of the Jewish calendar (March or April of the Gregorian calendar); Witnesses pass around bread and wine, symbols of the body and blood of Christ. Only those thought to be among the 144,000 corulers eat and drink the bread and wine. The Witnesses’ teachings stress strict separation from secular government. Although they are generally law-abiding, believing that governments are established by God to maintain peace and order, they refuse on biblical grounds to observe certain laws. They do not salute the flag of any nation, believing it an act of false worship; they refuse to perform military service; and they do not participate in public elections. These practices have brought them under the scrutiny of government authorities. The U.S. government sent Rutherford and other Watchtower leaders to prison for sedition during World War I. In Germany prior to World War II, the Nazis sent Witnesses to concentration camps, and Witnesses were also persecuted in Britain, Canada, and the United States. After the war the Witnesses brought several suits in American courts dealing with their beliefs and practices, resulting in 59 Supreme Court rulings that were regarded as major judgments on the free exercise of religion. They continue to face persecution in several countries, however, particularly for their refusal to serve in the military, and they are often publicly derided for their door-to-door evangelism. The Witnesses’ distrust of contemporary institutions extends to other religious denominations, from which they remain separate. They disavow terms such as minister and church. The leaders of some mainstream Christian churches have denounced the Witnesses for doctrinal deviation (especially their non-Trinitarian teachings) and have condemned them as a “cult.” Witnesses also oppose certain medical practices that they believe violate Scripture. In particular, they oppose blood transfusions, because of the scriptural admonition against the consumption of blood (Leviticus 3:17). This belief, which is contrary to standard medical practice, remains an additional point of controversy with authorities, especially in cases concerning children. In the early years of the movement, members met in rented halls, but under Rutherford the Witnesses began to purchase facilities that they designated Kingdom Halls. Members of local congregations, known as “publishers,” meet at Kingdom Halls and engage in doorstep preaching. “Pioneers” hold part-time secular jobs and devote a greater amount of time to religious service. “Special pioneers” are full-time salaried employees of the society. Each congregation has an assigned territory and each Witness a particular neighbourhood to canvass. Great pains are taken to keep records of the number of visits, return calls, Bible classes, and books and magazines distributed. The Watch Tower Society publishes millions of books, tracts, recordings, and periodicals in more than 700 languages. Its chief publications are a semimonthly magazine, the Watchtower, and its companion magazine, Awake!. Work is carried out throughout the world by more than eight million Witnesses. .