TRADITIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE AMONG LOZI PEOPLE IN MITIGATING CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS IN THE BAROTSE PLAINS OF WESTERN ZAMBIA BY STEPHEN BANDA A thesis submitted to the University of Zambia in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Adult Education The University of Zambia Lusaka 2016 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I, Stephen Banda, do hereby solemnly declare that this thesis represents my own original work. Where reference has been made to other people’s views and analyses, full acknowledgements are given. This work has not previously been submitted in whole or in part for award of any degree at the University of Zambia or any other educational institution. Signed: ……………………… Date: ………………………… i CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL This thesis for Stephen Banda is approved as fulfilling the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Adult Education by the University of Zambia. Signature of Examiner Date of approval …………………………………. ……………………………… …………………………………. ……………………………… …………………………………. ……………………………… …………………………………. ……………………………… ii DEDICATION To my late father, Wedson Zulu, and mother, Faidesi Zulu; my sisters Joyce and Margaret; my brothers Raphael, Chipanje and beloved sons, Wezi, Dalitso and Chimwemwe Banda, whose support and love in my education and work will forever inspire me. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many thanks to the Barotse Royal Establishment (BRE) for the opportunity they accorded me to conduct the study in their territory. I would like to express my sincere thanks to all people, organizations and institutions that in one way or the other helped make this study possible. My greatest gratitude goes to my supervisor Professor Charles Mwendabai Namafe. Many thanks go to management of the University of Zambia for giving me a Special Research Fellow award to enable me successfully pursue the doctorate studies. I also thank the staff in the Department of Adult Education and Extension Studies, School of Education at the University of Zambia for their support and encouragement throughout my study. Thanks to library staff at the University of Zambia main library and British Council library in Lusaka for their endless effort in providing literature for the study. Last, but not least, my appreciation goes to all respondents who participated in this study. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Title……………………..…………………………………………………………………. i Author’s Declaration……………………….…..…………………………….….…….…. ii Certificate of Approval…………………..……………..…………………………….…. iii Dedication………………………………..……………..……………………….….……. iv Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………….. v Table of Contents…………………..……………………….………………………..…... vi List of Figures………………………..……………………………………………….…. ix List of Plates…………………………..……..…………………………………………... x List of Tables………………………..…………..…………………...……………...…... xi List of Appendices………………………………………..……….………….…….….. xii Abstract……………………..………………………………………..………………..... xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………….. 1 1.0 Background to the Study.……………………………………….………………… 1 1.1 Statement of the Problem………………………………………..……..………..... 9 1.2 Purpose of the Study………………..…………………………………..……….. 11 1.3 Objectives of the Study……………….……………..………….……..………… 11 1.4 General Research Question……………………………………………………… 12 1.5 Research Questions……………………..………….………….……..………….. 12 1.6 Significance of the Study………………….……………..………………..…….. 12 1.7 Limitations of the Study….…………………………………………..….………. 13 1.8 Delimitations…………..…..……………….…………………………….……… 13 1.9 Theoretical Framework…………………………….…..……….……………….. 13 1.10 Definitions of Terms……………………………….…………….…..………….. 22 1.11 Organization of the Study……………………………………….………………. 23 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE…………………………………… 24 2.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………..…….. 24 2.1 Adult Education and Traditional Environmental Knowledge.……………..…… 25 2.2 Effects of Climate Change on Indigenous People ………….…..…….……….... 40 v 2.3 Significance of Traditional Environmental Knowledge in Mitigating Climate Change ..…………………………………………..…………………………..…………. 61 2.4 Enhancing Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation using Indigenous Knowledge………………………………….………..……………..…………… 76 2.5 Traditional Environmental Knowledge among Lozi Adults in Relation to Climate Change…………………………………………………………………………... 89 2.6 Summary of Literature Review…………………..……………..………….……. 92 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY......…………….………….…………….… 93 3.0 Introduction……………………………………….……….…….…….….……..... 93 3.1 Research Design……………………………………………….…………………... 93 3.2 Study Location..…………………………..……………………….……………….. 96 3.3 Target Population ………………………………………………...……………..… 103 3.4 Study Sample……………………………………………..……………………..… 103 3.5 Sampling Procedures…………………………………...……………………..….. 103 3.6 Research Instruments….….…………………………………………………….…. 104 3.7 Procedure of Data Collection ……………………………………………………… 105 3.8 Data Analysis……………………………….……………………………….…..… 106 3.9 Ethical Considerations..…………………...………………………………..……… 108 3.10 Summary of the Chapter ..……………………………………...………….……… 108 CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ………………………..…….. 110 4.0 Introduction….……………………………………………………...……….……. 110 4.1 Data Interpretation…………..…………………………………………….….….... 110 4.2 Background Characteristics of Respondents………………………….…….…….. 111 4.3 How have Lozi Adults around Lealui Ward Area of the Barotse Plains been Affected by Climate Change?…………………………………………….…........................ 112 4.4 What is the Role of Traditional Environmental Knowledge among Lozi Adults of Lealui Ward Area of the Barotse plains in Mitigating Climate Change?.................. 127 4.5 How can Traditional Environmental Knowledge among Lozi Adults around Lealui Ward Area of the Barotse Plains be Enhanced to Mitigate Climate Change?................................................................................................................. 142 4.6 Summary of the Key Findings………………………………..…….……..……… 149 vi CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS....………….….. 151 5.0 Introduction….………………………………….………………...…….….…….... 151 5.1 Background Characteristics of Respondents……………………….….….……..... 153 5.2 Effects of Climate Change on Communities around Lealui Ward Area …............. 153 5.3 Traditional Environmental Knowledge among Lozi Adults for Mitigating Climate Change…………………...……………………………………….………..…….... 164 5.4 Enhancing Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation using Indigenous Knowledge among Lozi Adults in the Barotse Pains………………..……....…………….…… 178 5.5 Summary of the Discussion…………………………………..…….………..…..… 186 6.0 Critical Reflections on the Research Process of the Study…………………..…….. 187 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS……. 189 7.0 Introduction………………………………..……………………....…………...….. 189 7.1 Summary of Findings……………………………….…………….…………..….… 189 7.2 Conclusion………………………………………..….…………….………….…... 190 7.3 Recommendations..………………………………..….…………..…………..……. 193 7.4 Future Research……………………………………….………………………..….. 196 7.5 How the Study might Impact Adult Education Programmes and Pratices…….….. 196 REFERENCES ………………………………………………..……………..………….. 198 APPENDICES……………………………………………………………...…….……… 206 vii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Iceberg theory of culture …………………………….…………..……………… 20 Figure 2: Heat absorbed by greenhouse gases and radiated back towards the surface .…… 34 Figure 3: An illustration of greenhouse effect around the Earth surface ………………….. 35 Figure 4: A sketch map of Zambia, showing location of Western Zambia ………….……. 99 Figure 5: A sketch map showing main study area in the Barotse plains .…………...…….. 100 viii LIST OF PLATES Page Plate 1: Residents of Tulang Diyot Island being evacuated by ship ………………………. 74 Plate 2: A floating community in the Netherlands, Europe ………………..…..…….…..... 83 Plate 3: Makoko Floating School in Nigeria, Africa……………………………………..... 84 Plate 4: A floating community of Makoko in Nigeria, Africa.…………………..……..… 87 Plate 5: Aerial photo of part of the Barotse plains showing the Zambezi river and some canals …...…….................................................................................................................... 101 Plate 6: A field of withered maize in Lealui Ward area of the Barotse plains……….….... 115 Plate 7: A field of withered maize at the edge of the Barotse plains in Mongu, Western Zambia ……………………………………………………………………….….... 115 Plate 8: Cattle grazing in a withered rice field in Lealui Ward area of the Barotse plains, Western Zambia……………………………………………………………….…... 116 Plate 9: A truck full of big logs showing deforestation in Western Zambia ……................ 120 Plate10: A truckload of logs on a pontoon for ‘export’ to other areas from the edge of the Barotse plains …………………………………………………………………...… 121 Plate 11: A primary school abandoned by leaners and teachers when it became inaccessible during flood in Lealui Ward area...……………………………............................. 123 Plate 12: A number of livestock reported to have been affected by heat stress around Lealui Ward area ……………………………………………………………………….. 125 Plate 13: Part of Lealui Ward area with Cashew nut and mango trees planted along the edge of the plain .……….……………………………………………………………….. 128 Plate 14: A village scenery with old and young trees, houses and canoe-based transport in the Barotse plains……………….…………………..…………………………………. 130 Plate 15: Paddling of the Nalikwanda barge during the Kuomboka ceremony ……..…….. 132 Plate 16: Evergreen cashew nut trees at the edge of the Barotse plains …………………... 133 Plate 17: A variety of bird species captured around Lealui Ward area ……………............ 140 ix LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1: Gender of respondents interviewed in the Barotse