The Rabbis, Gender, and the Yetzer Hara The Rabbis, Gender, and the Yetzer Hara: The Origins and Development of the Evil Inclination Susanna Towers, Cardiff University, UK Abstract Yetzer hara, commonly translated as the ‘evil inclination,’ is a key concept in rabbinic discourse concerning the human propensity to sin. This paper traces the origins of the concept and its subsequent development in rabbinic literature, in which it is intrinsically entwined with gender. Firstly, only men are considered to possess the self-restraint necessary to subdue the evil inclination. In contrast, rabbinic texts characterize women as lacking the self-restraint necessary to overcome the yetzer hara, particularly in the arena of sexuality. Secondly, rabbinic texts represent Torah study as the antidote to the yetzer hara. The male culture of Torah study in late antiquity precluded women from this important tool deemed necessary to master the yetzer hara. Additionally, the female form embodies the seductive powers of the yetzer hara to lead astray and constitutes a threat to masculine self-restraint. The gendering of relations to the yetzer hara has significant implications for gender hierarchy, legitimizing the regulation of women’s social behaviour. Introduction The concept of the yetzer hara lies at the core of rabbinic debates concerning the nature of human sin. Translations of the Hebrew word yetzer include inclination, instinct, imagination, tendency or disposition. Yetzer hara derives from the Hebrew root verb ytzr (to create or fashion) and adjective ra’ (bad, evil, displeasing, sad or injurious).1 As a noun, yetzer is used figuratively to express the formation of an intention or desire, and is used to designate the human propensity to commit sin. For the purposes of this paper, yetzer hara will be translated as the evil inclination. In rabbinic texts, the yetzer hara becomes increasingly identified with the power of sexual desire to lead astray. This paper seeks to further understanding of the relation between yetzer hara and gender by exploring the origins and development of the concept and its subsequent relation to gender in rabbinic texts. It will be argued that the battle to overcome the yetzer hara is gendered masculine in two respects. Firstly, only men possess the necessary masculinized trait of self-restraint required to subdue the evil inclination. Secondly, the tool required to achieve this – Torah study – is prescribed in rabbinic texts as the reserve of men. In contrast, rabbinic texts characterize women as having little or no control over the yetzer hara, particularly in relation to sexual restraint. Additionally, the female form embodies the seductive powers of yetzer hara to lead astray and thus constitutes a threat to masculine self-restraint. Furthermore, the male must battle to control not only his own sexual desire 1 Women in Judaism: A Multidisciplinary Journal Volume 15 Number 2 (2018) ISSN 1209-9392 © 2019 Women in Judaism, Inc. All material in the journal is subject to copyright; copyright is held by the journal except where otherwise indicated. There is to be no reproduction or distribution of contents by any means without prior permission. Contents do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors. The Rabbis, Gender, and the Yetzer Hara but those of the women who surround him. The polarized relation of men and women to the yetzer hara has implications for gender hierarchy, endorsing the regulation of female social behaviour. 1. Origins of the Yetzer Hara In order to understand the gendered representation of the yetzer hara in rabbinic literature, it is necessary to consider the pre-rabbinic roots of the concept in the Hebrew bible and Second Temple literature. The origins of the concept of yetzer hara lie in three verses of the book of Genesis, in which yetzer is represented as a neutral entity with no connection to gender. In Genesis 2:7, the verb denotes the divine formation of Adam. In Genesis 6:5, the evil nature of human inclinations רַצָי emerges as cause of the divine flooding of the earth. However, in Genesis 8:21, God accepts the existence of the evil inclination in humanity from youth and pledges never again to destroy the earth. These latter two verses indicate that yetzer takes root early in life and resides permanently in the human heart. Whether yetzer is to be understood as an innate human disposition or an independent entity living in the human heart is not specified. God’s knowledge of the nature of human inclinations is made evident in Deuteronomy 31, in which God foresees the future troubles of the Jewish people, declaring: “For I know their inclination what they [are planning] to do today, [even] before I bring them in to the land which I have sworn [to give them].” (Deuteronomy 31:21). In Chronicles I 28, King David prays that the inclination of the Jewish people may remain faithful to God: “O Lord, God of Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, our forefathers, keep this forever, even the creation of the thoughts of the heart of Your people, and prepare their hearts to You.” (Chronicles I 28:9) Reference is also made to God’s understanding of human inclinations: “for Adonai searches all hearts and understands all the inclinations of people’s thoughts.” (Chronicles I 29:9) The desirability of turning the inclination towards God is apparent in Isaiah 26: “A person whose desire rests on you, you preserve in perfect peace, because he trusts in you.” (Isaiah 26:3) In summary, the representation of yetzer in the Hebrew bible is neutral and undeveloped; there is as yet no specific entity defined as the yetzer hara and no association with gender. The representation of yetzer undergoes significant development in literature of the Second Temple period. These developments set the stage for rabbinic conceptualizations of the yetzer hara. The Second Temple period extends from the construction of the second temple (538 BCE) until its destruction by Roman forces in 70 CE. Literature of this period may be divided into the three categories: apocrypha and pseudepigrapha, literature from Qumran, and compositions of the Greek- 2 Women in Judaism: A Multidisciplinary Journal Volume 15 Number 2 (2018) ISSN 1209-9392 © 2019 Women in Judaism, Inc. All material in the journal is subject to copyright; copyright is held by the journal except where otherwise indicated. There is to be no reproduction or distribution of contents by any means without prior permission. Contents do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors. The Rabbis, Gender, and the Yetzer Hara speaking diaspora. The conceptualization of yetzer in literature of this period reflects contemporaneous developments in Jewish thought. In particular, variants of dualist doctrine emerge including ethical dualism (division into two paths or ways of good and evil), anthropological dualism (division of people into good and evil), cosmological dualism (two opposing universal forces of good and evil), psychological dualism (the internal conflict between good and evil) and cosmological dualism (the distinction between earth and heaven).2 The origins of dualism in Jewish thought are multiple. Firstly, dualism of body and spirit reflects the assimilation of Hellenist philosophical thought. In particular, Neo-Platonism is considered to have influenced the development of Jewish Gnostic dualism. Furthermore, research demonstrates the influence of Persian dualism on the development of doctrine at Qumran and subsequently on the Babylonian Talmud.3 The first reference to the yetzer hara as a definite concept appears in Ben Sira, which uses the Aramaic yatsra as an adaptation of yetzer: This appears in a pericope, which discusses the nature of true friendship and warns the reader of those who are friends when convenient but turn away in times of trouble. Ben Sira contains further references to yatsra as a distinct entity. Chapter 15 locates the origin of the human yatsra with God: “From the beginning it was he who created human beings, and he handed them over to their yatsra.” (Ben Sira 15:14).4 Chapter 21 states that yatsra may be controlled by keeping the law: “Whoever keeps the law controls his yatsra.” (Ben Sira 21:11).5 Texts surviving from the library of the religious community, which inhabited Qumran between 200 BCE to 73 CE represent the yetzer hara as a demonological force that requires expulsion or exorcism from the human body. Most of these texts pre-date the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE and thus date to the Second Temple period. The sectarian Plea for Deliverance categories the yetzer hara with demons and evil spirits: “Let not a satan rule over me, nor an unclean spirit; neither let pain nor evil inclination have power over my bones.” (Plea for Deliverance, 11Q5 XI)6 In the sectarian prayer Barkhi Nafshi (4Q434–438), the supplicant describes divine release from yetzer hara: “The evil inclination [you] have driven with rebukes [from my innermost parts and the spirit of ho]liness you have set in my heart.” (Barkhi Nafshi (4Q434–438).7 Eibert Tigchelaar notes the appearance of the verb gaar (to rebuke or drive with rebukes), which commonly denotes exorcism of spirits or demons.8 Ida Fröhlich argues that the demonization of the yetzer hara in these texts reflects not only a demonological belief system, but also the ethical dualism of the Qumran community, which posited two opposing groups of men, the ‘sons of darkness’ and ‘the sons of light’, the latter representing the members of the Qumran covenant.9 3 Women in Judaism: A Multidisciplinary Journal Volume 15 Number 2 (2018) ISSN 1209-9392 © 2019 Women in Judaism, Inc. 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