View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Tasmania Open Access Repository Workplace Mental Health and the Role of Organisational Leaders: A training needs analysis and evaluation of an online program to reduce depression- related stigma Clare Shann B.A. (Hons), MBA, MAPS Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The Tasmanian School of Business & Economics University of Tasmania April 2015 WORKPLACE MENTAL HEALTH AND THE ROLE OF LEADERS i Declaration of Originality This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by the University or any other institution, except by way of background information duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of my knowledge and belief no material previously published or written by any other person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis, nor does the thesis contain any material that infringes copyright. Signed: Date: 1st December 2014 WORKPLACE MENTAL HEALTH AND THE ROLE OF LEADERS ii Statement of Authority of Access This thesis can be made available for loan. Copying of any part of this thesis is prohibited for two years from the date this statement was signed; after that time limited copying is permitted in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. Signed: Date: 1st December 2014 WORKPLACE MENTAL HEALTH AND THE ROLE OF LEADERS iii Statement of Ethical Conduct The research associated with this thesis abides by the international and Australian codes on human and animal experimentation, the guidelines by the Australian Government's Office of the Gene Technology Regulator and the rulings of the Safety, Ethics and Institutional Biosafety Committees of the University. Signed: Date: 1st December 2014 WORKPLACE MENTAL HEALTH AND THE ROLE OF LEADERS iv Publications and Presentations Arising from this Research The training needs analysis outlined in this thesis has been published and presented at two conferences, details below: Shann, C., Martin, A., & Chester, A. (2014). Improving workplace mental health: a training needs analysis to inform beyondblue’s online resource for leaders. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 52(3), 298-315. Shann, C., Martin, A., & Chester, A. (2012). Identifying the learning needs of organisational leaders in relation to mental health awareness and stigma reduction in the workplace. Poster presented at the 5th International Stigma Conference, Ottawa, Canada. Shann, C., Martin, A., & Chester, A. (2011). Identifying the learning needs of organisational leaders in relation to mental health in the workplace. Paper presented at the 9th Industrial and Organisational Psychology Conference, Brisbane, Australia. WORKPLACE MENTAL HEALTH AND THE ROLE OF LEADERS v Table of Contents Declaration of Originality ............................................................................................... i Statement of Authority of Access ..................................................................................ii Statement of Ethical Conduct ...................................................................................... iii Publications and Presentations Arising from this Research ......................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... v Index of Tables ............................................................................................................xii Index of Figures .......................................................................................................... xvi Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................xvii Glossary ...................................................................................................................... xix Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................. 5 Approach of the Current Research ............................................................................. 8 Thesis Structure ....................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2: Why is Depression a Workplace Issue? ..................................................... 13 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 13 Prevalence of Depression Amongst the Working Population .................................. 13 The Debilitating Nature of Depression .................................................................... 16 Depression and Employment Participation .............................................................. 19 The Indirect Costs of Depression ............................................................................. 20 Treatment Efficacy and Uptake ............................................................................... 22 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 24 Chapter 3: Depression Stigma - Its Impact at Work, Conceptualisation and Strategies for its Reduction ........................................................................................................... 26 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 26 Workplace Stigma as a Major Barrier to Help-Seeking for Depression .................. 27 Reducing Stigma in the Workplace ......................................................................... 36 Conceptualisation and Predictors of Depression Stigma ......................................... 37 WORKPLACE MENTAL HEALTH AND THE ROLE OF LEADERS vi The Unitary Theory of Stigmatisation ..................................................................... 45 Strategies to Reduce Depression-Related Stigma .................................................... 51 Implications for the Design of the Online Program in the Evaluation Study .......... 62 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 64 Chapter 4: What are Organisations Doing to Address Mental Health in the Workplace? ...................................................................................................................................... 66 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 66 Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) .................................................................. 67 Workplace Mental Health Training Programs ......................................................... 73 Coping-based programs targeting at risk employees ........................................... 74 Mental health education and stigma reduction programs targeting all employees. .............................................................................................................................. 75 Organisational Leadership, Culture and Social Learning Theory ........................... 81 The Use of Online Technologies to Address the Impact of Depression .................. 87 Online mental health education programs in the workplace. ............................... 90 Rise in the use of e-learning in workplaces. ........................................................ 91 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 92 Chapter 5: Measuring the Effectiveness of Workplace Training Programs - Considerations for the Design of the Evaluation Study ............................................... 94 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 94 Kirkpatrick’s ‘Four Levels’ Model of Training Evaluation .................................... 95 Brinkerhoff & Apking’s High Impact Learning Model ......................................... 101 Brinkerhoff’s Success Case Method of Evaluation ............................................... 105 Factors that Impact on Training Transfer .............................................................. 111 Training Transfer in the Online Environment ....................................................... 114 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 115 Chapter 6: Training Needs Analysis and Implications for the Development of the Online Workplace Mental Health Program ............................................................... 116 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 116 The Training Needs Assessment (TNA) Method .................................................. 116 WORKPLACE MENTAL HEALTH AND THE ROLE OF LEADERS vii Aims and Hypotheses Tested in the Training Needs Analysis .............................. 117 Method ................................................................................................................... 119 Participants. .................................................................................................... 119 Measures. ..........................................................................................................