A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick Permanent WRAP URL: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/88343 Copyright and reuse: This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. For more information, please contact the WRAP Team at: [email protected] warwick.ac.uk/lib-publications British Pakistani boys in Birmingham schools: education and the role of religion by Karamat Iqbal, B.Ed. M.Soc.Sc. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Warwick, Department of Education March 2017 CONTENTS CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................... ii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................... ix GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................................ 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................... 3 DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 6 1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Starting where you are at ..................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.1 My background ............................................................................................................................. 8 1.3 Research focus and aims.................................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Pakistani-Birmingham; development of a community .................................................................. 15 1.6 Pakistani pupils, the national picture ............................................................................................... 19 1.7 Pakistani pupil attainment; the situation in Birmingham .............................................................. 23 1.8 Birmingham’s Pakistani boys; a particular problem ...................................................................... 26 1.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 27 Chapter 2: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.............................................................................. 29 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 29 2.2 Education of minorities; a look back at the past ........................................................................... 29 2.2.1 Gaps in education ....................................................................................................................... 30 2.2.2 Focus on Pakistani pupils .......................................................................................................... 31 2.2.3 The Birmingham response to minority pupils ........................................................................ 36 2.2.4 Back to colour-blind education policy ..................................................................................... 39 2.2.5 Funding for ethnic minority pupils .......................................................................................... 43 ii 2.2.6 Pakistanis not the only underachieving group – limitations of educational policy interventions .......................................................................................................................................... 45 2.3 Social class and its impact.................................................................................................................. 45 2.3.1 Differential impact amongst minorities ................................................................................... 48 2.3.2 Different parenting strategies .................................................................................................... 50 2.4 Protective factors for Pakistanis ....................................................................................................... 52 2.4.1 Ethnicity and 'immigrant' as a resource ................................................................................... 52 2.4.2 Importance of religion ............................................................................................................... 54 2.5 Factors impacting on Pakistani education ...................................................................................... 57 2.5.1 Home factors ............................................................................................................................... 57 2.5.2 Prior attainment .......................................................................................................................... 58 2.6 The wider meaning of education for Pakistanis ............................................................................. 58 2.6.1 Islamic idea of education ........................................................................................................... 60 2.6.2 Role of the Pakistani family ....................................................................................................... 61 2.7 Supplementary education .................................................................................................................. 63 2.7.1 Funding of supplementary schooling....................................................................................... 64 2.7.2 Positive outcomes of supplementary schools ......................................................................... 66 2.7.3 Problems with Muslim supplementary education .................................................................. 68 2.7.4 The opportunity cost of madrassah participation .................................................................. 73 2.7.5 Benefits of extra-curricular activities ........................................................................................ 74 2.8 Homework and study support .......................................................................................................... 78 2.9 School factors ...................................................................................................................................... 81 2.9.1 Teacher-pupil relationships ....................................................................................................... 81 2.9.2 Teacher understanding of pupil background .......................................................................... 83 2.9.3 Role of teacher training .............................................................................................................. 85 2.9.4 Funds of knowledge ................................................................................................................... 90 iii 2.10 Representative diversity ................................................................................................................... 92 2.10.1 The key role of minority teachers ........................................................................................... 93 2.10.2 Government support for diversity in the teaching workforce ........................................... 98 2.10.3 National steps towards diversity in teaching......................................................................... 99 2.10.4 Birmingham efforts to improve teacher diversity .............................................................. 101 2.11 Linking up the pupils’ worlds ....................................................................................................... 104 2.11.1 Home and school .................................................................................................................... 105 2.11.2 Partnership between supplementary and mainstream schools......................................... 107 2.12 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 109 2.13 Research questions ......................................................................................................................... 110 2.13.1 Overall Research Question .................................................................................................... 110 2.13.1.1 Sub-questions ................................................................................................................... 110 Chapter 3: THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 112 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 112 3.2 A mixed-methods study ..................................................................................................................