United They Stood, Divided They Didn't Fall: Culture and Politics in Mi'kmaq Nova Scotia, 1969-1988 By Michelle Coffin A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Arts in Atlantic Canada Studies at Saint Mary's University Halifax, Nova Scotia October 1,2003 © Michelle Coffin 2003 Approved By: Ür. HarolchMcQee Supervisor Dr/JJofya<Reid l®7lleader T^r. Janet Chute External Reader National Library Bibliothèque nationale 1^1 of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisisitons et Bibliographic Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre référence ISBN: 0-612-85661-5 Our file Notre référence ISBN: 0-612-85661-5 The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of theL'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither thedroit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts from Niit la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou aturement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. In compliance with the Canadian Conformément à la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privée, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this dissertation. ont été enlevés de ce manuscrit. While these forms may be includedBien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the dissertation. Canada United They Stood, Divided They Didn’t Fall: Culture and Politics in Mi’kmaq Nova Scotia, 1969 - 1988 Table of Contents List of Illustrations iii Abstract iv List of Abbreviations v Acknowledgements vi Introduction: Culture Through the Lens of Politics 1 Chapter One: Contemporary Political Organizations Emerge 24 Chapter Two: Unity then Division: The Political Realities 45 Chapter Three: Language in Politics: The UNSI Experience 83 Chapter Four: The Grand Council: The Intersection of Religion and Politics 111 Chapter Five: Power Struggle: The Divergence of Economics and Politics 135 Conclusion: The Union and the Confederates: The Cultural Divide 161 Appendix 166 Bibliography 179 List of Illustrations Tables: 1. Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq Population 71 2. Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq Bands 72 3. Mi’kmaq Language Use On-Reserve Adult Population 1980 88 4. Employment Status of the Adult Labour Force On-Reserve, Cape Breton and Mainland 1976 137 5. Location of Work, Adult Labour Force On-Reserve, Cape Breton and Mainland 1975 138 6. Mainland Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq On-Reserve and Off-Reserve Population 139 7. Cape Breton On-Reserve and Off-Reserve Population 140 8. Occupations of the Adult Labour Force On-Reserve, Cape Breton and Mainland 1975 144 Figures: 1. Traditional Mi’kmaq Territory 84 2. Traditional Mi’kmaq Districts 116 111 Abstract The structure and membership of First Nations political organizations can reveal much about the culture of an aboriginal society. This thesis is an examination of the cultural experiences found within the political organization of the Mi’kmaq of Nova Scotia between 1969 and 1988. The analysis demonstrates that within the political realm, the Mi’kmaq of Nova Scotia displayed distinctions with respect to the values placed on particular aspects of their culture. The Union of Nova Scotia Indians was established in 1969 to politically represent the Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq population. By the mid-1970s, however, tensions and divisions were evident that eventually resulted in the formation of the Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs in 1986. The result was a divided Mi’kmaq political landscape in Nova Scotia along a geographical boundary - Cape Breton and mainland Nova Scotia - with each organization representing a segment of the provincial population and attempting to control as much of the sociopolitical space as possible. The thesis argues that although cultural differences were not solely responsible for the splintering of the first provincial organization in Nova Scotia, the cultural value placed on language, religion, politics and economic factors varied between the two organizations. United They Stood, Divided They Didn’t Fall: Culture and Politics in Mi’kmaq Nova Scotia, 1969 - 1988 Michelle Coffin October 8, 2003 IV List of Abbreviations UCCB University College of Cape Breton SFXUEDA St. Francis Xavier University Extension Department Archives PANS Public Archives of Nova Scotia MIAC Maritimes Indian Advisory Council UNSI Union of Nova Scotia Indians CMM Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs UN Ulnueeg Negonidike NCNS Native Council of Nova Scotia UNBI Union of New Brunswick Indians NIB National Indian Brotherhood AFN Assembly of First Nations Acknowledgements First and foremost I wish to thank the many members of the Mi’kmaq community who participated in this project. Without their willingness to share their experiences, perspectives and knowledge this thesis would have been impossible to complete. Thank you to Councillor Colin Bernard, Peter Christmas, Councillor Alex Cope, Grand Captain Alex Denny, Joel Denny, Bemie Francis, Councillor Roy Gould, Duncan Gould, Greg Johnson, Patrick Johnson, District Chief John Knoekwood, Heather Knockwood-Yaeh, Professor and UNSI Executive Director Joe B. Marshall, Professor Murdena Marshall, Albert Marshall, Chief Lawrence Paul and Daniel N. Paul. To my e-mail research participant: Our many e-mails and your tireless answers to my many questions gave me a greater understanding of so many issues. Thank you. I want to thank my thesis supervisor Dr. Harold McGee, who supported my research 100 per cent. It was your understanding of the Mi’kmaq and your research that inspired my research and this thesis. To committee member Dr. John Reid, your expert knowledge of the history of Atlantic Canada and your attention to detail strengthened the historical elements of my thesis and added to the quality of this project. And to committee member Dr. Janet Chute, thank you for your encouragement - your enthusiasm for the study of the Mi’kmaq is extraordinary. I hope our paths cross again. To Brian for giving up your summer - and vacation - to support me through this journey. If it was not for your encouragement I don’t know if I would have completed this degree. But most of all thank you for understanding me. To my life-long friend Adele for saying what I needed to hear and always being there when 1 needed you. And to my friend Jill, thank you for taking time out of your summer to read and re-read sections of my thesis, your comments and suggestions are reflected in the finished project. JR, thanks for your unending encouragement and support. Denis, you have truly been a mentor. Thank you for believing in me. 1 also want to express my thanks to the 1999-2003 Liberal MLAs for recognizing how important it was to me to reach this goal. An individual thank you goes out to Dr. Jim Smith, Manning MacDonald, Michel Samson, Wayne Gaudet, Dave Wilson, Rennie MacAskill, Paul MacEwan and Russell MacKinnon. As well as former MLAs that I had the privilege of working with: Don Downe and Brian Boudreau. Thank you to archivists Kate Curry, formerly of the Beaton Institute, Diane Chisholm of the Mi’kmaq Resource Centre and Kathleen MacKenzie, of the St. Francis Xavier University Extension Department Archives, who know their respective collections like the back of their hands. All provided much assistance in locating valuable materials and provided advice on where to find many others. Kate - enjoy your retirement! Most importantly, to my parents and my bro, thank you for your unconditional love and your patience. VI Introduction: Culture Through the Lens of Politics Neither politics nor political organizations define a culture or a people. However, an examination of political organizations certainly can assist in the understanding of a people and the value they place on the various aspects of their culture. Raymond Breton has argued that an understanding of ethnic communities is virtually impossible or will he very limited if “inadequate consideration is not given to the political dimension.”' However, within the Atlantic Canadian context, the study of First Nations political organizations has not received the attention it deserves. This thesis is an attempt to shed some light on the ‘political dimension’ of the Mi’kmaq of Nova Scotia. It will demonstrate that an examination of the political organization of the Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq reveals cultural differences along a regional boundary - Cape Breton Island and mainland Nova Scotia. Although political organizations are not new to the aboriginal political scene, the place of contemporary First Nations political organizations within the Canadian political and social framework has changed dramatically over the last few decades. Today, aboriginal organizations exist in every province and have representation through umbrella organizations at the national level. Breton has contended that although, “ethnic communities have always had significance in the institutional arenas of the larger society; today, however, their existence and role in society are becoming increasingly institutionalized. Ethnic communities are becoming explicitly incorporated as such into the institutional fabric of society.”^ Today, native provincial and national organizations are influencing First Nations policy and effectively articulating native issues and ‘ Raymond Breton, The Governance of Ethnic Communities: Political Structures and Processes in Canada, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1991, p. 1. concerns to Canadians through the use of mass media and other mediums.