The great supernova of 1987 SN 1987 A. Despite their apparently very different objectives, astrophy­ sics - the study of the largest structures in the Universe - and particle physics - the study of the smallest - have always had common ground. On 23 February 1987 a super­ nova explosion provided addi­ tional impetus to reinforce these links. In this article, David Schramm of the Univer­ sity of Chicago and the NASA/Fermilab Astrophysics Center, explains why. One of the most spectacular events in modern astrophysics occurred on 23 February 1987, when light and neutrinos from a supernova ex­ plosion in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) first reached Earth. The LMC (a satellite of our Milky Way Galaxy) is 170,000 light years away, making the event, code- named SN 1987A, the closest vi­ sual supernova since Kepler ob­ served one almost 400 years ago. Most of our knowledge of super- novae has come either from obser­ vations of outbursts in distant gal­ axies, too far away to obtain neu­ trinos, or from studies of old rem­ nants in our Galaxy, thus missing the fireworks. Having a supernova blast off re­ also proved that our ideas about novae that were missed in previous latively nearby while neutrino and element formation in exploding supernova rate estimates. Another electromagnetic radiation detectors stars were basically correct. In par­ exciting ingredient was the recent were in action has been fantastic. ticular, the gamma rays from ra­ report of a 0.5 ms pulsar remnant In addition, the pre-supernova star dioactive cobalt-56 indicated that in the supernova. This led to a lot was identified as a blue giant rather heavy elements had been 'cooked' of speculation but has now been than a red giant supernova stereo­ - nucleosynthesis had indeed oc­ withdrawn. type. curred. The detection of the initial neutr­ This supernova also might affect Supernovae - lore and laws ino burst made the supernova a estimates of stellar collapse rates weak interaction laboratory as well in our Galaxy. In particular, if many as founding extra-solar system blue stars collapse, then there Astronomers classify supernovae neutrino astronomy. The supernova could be many dim Type II super- by whether or not they have hy- CERN Courier, April 1990 1 Supernova encounters of the second type In a star more than about ten times heavier than the sun, the Figure 1 - Stars are characterized by a lumi­ gravitational pressure can retain nosity/temperature chart (Hertzsprung-Rus- a thermonuclear furnace generat­ sell diagram). Heavier stars are found from the upper left of the 'main sequence' (which ing successive layers of heavier includes the sun). elements - hydrogen on the out­ side, then helium, then carbon, neon, oxygen and silicon, ac­ creting a core of nickel, cobalt and iron, the most tightly bound nuclei, where the thermonuclear chain fizzles out. In the 1930s Subramanyan Chandrasekhar pointed to a criti­ cal mass, about 1.4 times the mass of the sun, when stellar material succumbs to the com­ pression of gravity. At about the same time Fritz Zwicky had suggested that un­ der extreme conditions, atoms could be crushed, with orbital el­ ectrons being pushed into nuclei, producing neutrons and neutrinos, and forming a neutron star of uniform nuclear density, a few cubic centimetres weigh­ ing hundreds of millions of tons! Such compact nuclear matter is highly incompressible, and the gravitational collapse of the me­ tallic core bounces back as a mighty shock wave, blowing apart the outer layers of the star. The energy released in such a supernova is enormous - drogen: Type I have no hydrogen, Such stars eventually evolve to as though everyone on Earth Type II do. Supernova explosions an onionskin configuration with an were to explode a million million also fall into two categories - nu­ iron core surrounded by successive million megaton hydrogen bomb clear detonation (when the pres­ shells of silicon, oxygen, neon, car­ at the same time - outclassed sure of gravitation pushes the inter­ bon, helium and an outer envelope only by the Big Bang itself! ior temperature of a star to thermo­ of hydrogen. This structure devel­ Such a supernova (Type II) nuclear ignition) and gravitational ops through various stages of nu­ produces two signals - an initial core collapse (when gravitation clear burning. The first stage is hy­ burst of neutrinos as its inner crushes the atomic nuclei, produc­ drogen burning to helium, when the core collapses, and a subse­ ing a neutron star - see box). SN outer surface temperature and lumi­ quent wave of radiant energy as 1987A had hydrogen, so it is defi­ nosity are related by the main se­ the shock wave bounces back. nitely Type II, and it had the neutri­ quence line on Figure I. Our sun is The 1987 supernova was the no footprint of core collapse. currently on the main sequence. first time that physicists had The star which exploded was When the core helium mass been equipped to catch these definitely the blue supergiant San- reaches a critical level, it starts to neutrinos. It was also the first duleak -69 202, estimated to be collapse under its own gravity until time that a supernova had lit up about 20 times heavier than the it gets hot and dense enough for in a well-mapped part of the sun. Massive stars (more than the helium to burn to carbon. As sky, so that astronomers were about ten solar masses) have been this core collapses, the outer envel­ soon able to identify the culprit generally assumed to be the proge­ ope expands and the star becomes 'progenitor' star. nitors of Type II supernova, and SN a 'red giant'. 1987A confirms this. The next stage occurs when the 2 CERN Courier, April 1990 Figure 2 - A schematic cross-section of a star of about 20 solar masses, showing suc­ cessive formation zones of heavier ele­ ments. Only the dominant elements are shown, significant amounts of nearby alpha- particle type nuclei also being present. When a supernova explodes and its iron core collapses to form a neutron star, sev­ eral solar masses of heavy elements will be ejected. As Fred Hoyle first suggested in the 1940s, this could be the origin of the bulk of heavy elements. carbon ashes of helium burning reach a critical mass and begin to collapse. Carbon cores go critical at the Chandrasekhar mass, about 1.4 solar masses. Because of mat­ ter evaporation (like the solar wind) stars lighter than about ten solar masses never get carbon cores this large, and so don't burn carbon, settling down instead to become white dwarves. On the other hand heavier stars do eventually go through carbon burning, followed by several successive stages be­ fore reaching iron (Figure 2). Here the burning sequence stops be­ cause iron has the maximum nu- cleon binding energy of any nu­ cleus. After the carbon burning stage, the centre of the star is so dense that energy produced by burning cannot radiate, and escapes mainly as neutrinos. Since these particles flow unscathed through the outer part of the star, these regions have no knowledge of what is happening inside. Thus once a star becomes a red giant, it is difficult to tell hether its core is burning helium or is iron on the verge of collapse. Furthermore the outer envelope may puff up and be blown off, or may contract due to hydrogen-he­ lium mechanisms that have nothing to do with the interior goings-on. The most discussed although not totally unexpected feature of massive blue stars could also un­ proportions in massive stars and the progenitor Sanduleak -69 202 dergo final collapse, depending on associated Type II supernovae, is the fact that it was a blue super- convection, mass loss, and compo­ while carbon is somewhat under­ giant. Standard descriptions for sition. SN 1987A ultra-violet ob­ produced. While there is general progenitors of Type II supernovae servations reveal the previously qualitative agreement on this, nu­ generally assume red supergiants. ejected red giant envelope as a cir- merical results differ considerably. Such supernova lore was naturally cumstellar shell about 0.7 light Nevertheless it was expected that biased, since standard Type lis ob­ years around a progenitor which the 1987 supernova should show served in distant galaxies require a was once red and subsequently significant levels of nuclei from ox­ large progenitor to achieve their eroded to blue. ygen to iron. high luminosities, and low luminosi­ Detailed nucleosynthesis calcula­ The amount of ejected iron from ty, blue progenitor Type Us would tions indicate that oxygen and a Type II supernova is sensitive to be easily missed. However even nuclei from neon to calcium are the temperatures and densities before 1987 it was known that produced in approximately solar near the boundary between the col- CERN Courier, April 1990 3 Ask: OPAL, HI, ZEUS, CP LEAR, JETSET, Here is the system which has emerged as THE standard VME data acquisition system for one simple reason : You run your experiment within 5 days from reception ! 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