Chapter 11 – book: The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries Ed. G. Hilson, Pub. A.A. Balkema, Swets Publishers, Netherlands, 2003 Women and Artisanal Mining: Gender Roles and the Road Ahead Jennifer J. Hinton1, Marcello M. Veiga2, Christian Beinhoff2 1. Dept. of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC Canada 2. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Vienna, Austria. A hot, dry wind envelopes a statuesque woman activities have increased by up to 20% in the past as she kneels over wind-sifted trays of tin- decade. bearing pulverized ore in Uis, Namibia. In Bolivia, a nine-year old girl scrambles down a Approximately 30% of the world’s artisanal steep pit wall yet again to refill her bucket of miners are women who occupy a number of roles metal-rich sand. And yet another woman stokes ranging from labour-intensive mining methods to the fire in her wood burning stove in the the processing aspect of artisanal mining, Philippines, releasing the mercury from doré in a including amalgamation with mercury in the case poorly ventilated kitchen; the thick black soot of gold extraction. As processing activities are coating the kitchen wall contains more than 15% often conducted in the home, women and their mercury. Up to her knees in muddy water, a families can be at great risk from mercury woman pans for gold to supplement the meagre poisoning and silicosis. In many cases, the roles family income in a Malian “orpaillage”. The of women in artisanal mining communities differ faces are as varied as these scenarios but there is significantly from those of men, and extend well one commonality – artisanal mining represents beyond direct participation in mining activities – an opportunity. To some, participation is driven this added facet brings with it different by the allure of riches; however, for many contributions and a completely unique set of women, artisanal mining signifies an opportunity risks and opportunities. to relieve the strains of poverty1. This chapter intends to explore existing and Artisanal miners2 employ rudimentary evolving gender3 roles of women in artisanal techniques for mineral extraction and often mining communities, and provides a rationale operate under hazardous, labour-intensive, and strategy for women to maximize potential highly disorganized and illegal conditions. benefits from participation in the sector. Women Despite these factors, artisanal mining is an are often overlooked by initiatives and essential activity in many developing countries, development programmes directed at catalyzing particularly in regions where economic the transformation of artisanal mining. Due to alternatives are critically limited. The their critical role, not only in mineral production, International Labour Organization (1999) but also in the development of sustainable estimates that the number of artisanal miners is communities, combined with their susceptibility currently around 13 million in 55 countries, to poverty, enhancing the role of women in which is roughly equivalent to the global artisanal mining may be a means to “bridge the workforce of large-scale mining. From this, it gap” between the well- conceived technical and has been extrapolated that 80 to 100 million socio-economic changes often prescribed for people worldwide are directly and indirectly artisanal mining, and the actual facilitation of dependent on this activity for their livelihood. positive transformation of the artisanal mining ILO further estimates that artisanal mining sector. This may be accomplished in a number of ways, including: 1 The term poverty is used in a broad sense in this · Gender-sensitive technology assistance chapter. As described by Çagatay (2001), poverty initiatives; refers to “human poverty”, which includes lack of assets, dignity, autonomy and time in addition to income poverty. 3 Gender, as applied herein, refers to the behaviours, 2 Artisanal mining is used to denote all small-scale as attitudes, values, beliefs, etc. that a particular socio- well as medium and large-scale mining that may be cultural group considers appropriate for males and illegal or legal, formal or informal. Artisanal mining females. The authors adhere to the belief that gender may be better characterized by a lack of long-term roles are fluid and can shift over time, space and in mine planning and use of rudimentary techniques different contexts (Butler, 1990). (Hinton et al., 2003). Chapter 11 - The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries · Enhancement of other skills, including the case of gold mining. Less commonly, women managerial and accounting; are concession owners, mine operators, dealers · Financial support through the and buying agents, and equipment owners. In establishment of credit lines and micro- many locales, women function in multiple lending programmes; capacities. For instance, a women working as a · Support for the acquisition of mineral panner may also obtain income as a sex trade titles; worker and a cook. Despite the diverse and · Consideration of women in the important roles undertaken by women in development of regulations and artisanal mining, limited reliable information is policies; available on this topic. The numbers of women · The awareness of health and safety involved have been estimated in several issues, with consideration of children countries; however, there are very few accounts who may accompany their mothers or telling the stories of individual women and a take part in artisanal mining activities; paucity of information concerning the age, and ethnicity, status, wealth, and health of both · The challenging of social norms which women and men in these communities. Since the prevent women from benefiting from participation of women in non-mining activities these activities. is often overshadowed by their involvement in mining, their direct and indirect roles in artisanal It has been well documented that inequities in mining communities are discussed independently political power, distribution of income, capital below. assets, and access to education and information have resulted in the increased susceptibility of women to chronic poverty. In some cultures, this Women as Miners is exacerbated by the fact that women do not Women’s direct participation in artisanal mining always have control of their earned income or varies throughout the world. In Asia, generally they occupy positions in the unpaid economy less than 10% of miners are women, whereas in (e.g. subsistence agriculture, domestic work). Latin America, the proportion tends to be higher, Ultimately, it is crucial that women be approximately 10-20%. The percentage of empowered to transform their skills and female artisanal miners is the highest in Africa, capabilities into well-being. Artis anal mining is ranging between 40 and 50%. In some regions, only one micro-industry; however, as Labonne the artisanal mining workforce is comprised of (1996) articulated “(artisanal) mining… may 60 to 100% women (ILO, 1999; Amutabi and become a stepping stone towards economic Lutta-Mukhebi, 2001; Onuh, 2002). Women fulfillment, contributing to a better future for typically play a much larger role in artisanal women and men in many developing countries”. mining than in the large scale mining sector (WMMF, 2000). Statistics on the participation of women derived from country studies PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN commissioned through the Mining, Minerals and ARTISANAL MINING COMMUNITIES Sustainable Development initiative are shown in Artisanal mining communities around the world Table 1. are diverse, dynamic and distinct – they vary from culture-to-culture, region-to-region and As women often work part-time at informal mine-to-mine, and change over the course of mining operations, and occupy “ancillary roles” time. The women within these communities are (e.g. cooks, service providers), there may be also heterogeneous and unique; however, they significant discrepancies between the estimated tend to be engaged in specific roles throughout and actual numbers of women involved in the world. Typically, they are labourers (e.g. artisanal mining (Wasserman, 1999). Further to panners, ore carriers and processors), providers this, as women are more frequently associated of goods and services (e.g. cooks, shopkeepers) with transporting and processing materials, as and are often solely responsible for domestic opposed to digging, they are not always chores. Women’s responsibilities in mineral identified as “miners” (Susapu and Crispin, processing activities range from crushing, 2001). grinding, sieving, washing and panning, to amalgamation and amalgam decomposition in 2 Chapter 11 – book: The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries Ed. G. Hilson, Pub. A.A. Balkema, Swets Publishers, Netherlands, 2003 Table 1: Women in Artisanal Mining in Selected Countries Country Number of Women Proportion of Women Africa Burkina Faso 45,000-85,000 45 Ghana 89,500 45 Malawi 4000 10 Mali 100,000 50 Mozambique 18,000 30 South Africa 500 5 Tanzania 137,500 25 Zambia 9,000 30 Zimbabwe 153,000 50 Asia India 33,500 7 Indonesia 10,900 10 Philippines 46,400 25 Papua New Guinea 12,000 20 Latin America Bolivia 15,500 22 Ecuador 6,200 10 Total 596,000 Source: (after Hentschel et al., 2002) Africa In Burkina Faso, approximately 90% of mineral The involvement of women in Ghanaian small- processing activities are conducted by women scale mining has been well documented by (Gueye, 2001). Between 45,000 and 85,000 Hilson (2001, 2002). Acting as licensed buyers women work in gold mining alone and as many (6%), concession holders (10%), and work group as 45% of all artisanal miners are women. At sponsors or participants (15-20%), women many alluvial gold mine sites (orpillages), comprise approximately 15% of the legal small- women spend countless hours meticulously hand scale metal mining labour force in Ghana. Hilson picking out nuggets. Women in Burkina Faso (2001) estimated that illegal involvement in the also take on an important role in the industrial galamsey industry is up to 50%. The minerals sector (e.g.