ETERNAL GARDEN Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center Second edition Carl W. Ernst Foreword by Annemarie Schimmel OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CONTENTS Preface to the Second Edition xi Foreword by Annemarie Schimmel xix Preface and Acknowledgments xxiii Illustrations xxxii PARTI Historiographical Orientation: Sufism and Islam in South Asia 1. Sufism S The Sufi Tradition 5 Sufism in Islamic Society 11 2. Historiographies of Islam in India 18 The Problem of Nationalist Historiography 18 Medieval Islamic Views of India 22 Medieval Indian Views of Islam 29 3. Religion and Empire in the Delhi Sultanate 38 Persian Kingship and the Indo- Muslim State 38 Non-Muslims and the Sultanate 47 Sultanate and Caliphate 55 Sultanate Imperialism and Sufism 59 viii ETERNAL GARDEN 4. The Textual Formation of Oral Teachings in the Early Chishtï Order 62 From Oral Teaching to Written Text in Sufism 63 The Foundation of the Chishtï Malfüzät Literature: Nizâm al-Dïn 65 The Elaboration of the Malfüzät Tradition: Chirägh-i Dihlï 68 The Elaboration of the Malfüzät Tradition: Burhän al-Dïn Gharïb 71 The Problem of "Inauthentic" Malfüzät 77 5. The Interpretation of the Sufi Biographical Tradition in India 85 PART II Chishtï Sufism at Khuldabad 6. From Delhi to the Deccan 97 The Historiography of Sufism in the Deccan 97 Sufism and the Turkish Conquest of the Deccan 107 7. Burhän al-Dïn Gharïb's Establishment and Teaching 118 The Khalifa of Nizâm al-Dïn 118 The Sufi Master 123 Teachings and Practices 127 The Disciples 133 Sarna": Listening to Music 147 8. The Indian Environment and the Question of Conversion 155 CONTENTS ix PART III The Khuldabad Sufis in History 9. Political Relations of the Khuldabad Chishtïs 191 10. Political History of the Khuldabad Shrines 201 The Bahmanï Sultans 201 The Farüqïs of Khandesh 207 The Mughuls and Nizams 215 11. Khuldabad as a Sacred Center in the Local Context 227 The Khuldabad-Burhanpur Axis 227 The Local Saints of Khuldabad 233 PART IV Conclusions PARTV Appendixes A. A Sufi Bookshelf: The Bibliography of Rukn al-Dïn Dabïr Kashanï 251 B. A Fifteenth-Century Revenue Memorandum 264 C. Mughul and Deccan Farmäns from Khuldabad 273 Notes 281 Bibliography 341 Index of Names 361 Index of Terms and Subjects 375.