PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS MATERIAL COPYRIGHT PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS Multiple Modernities MATERIAL COPYRIGHT PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS MATERIAL COPYRIGHT PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS Multiple Modernities a tale of scandinavian experiences gunnar skirbekk MATERIAL COPYRIGHT the chinese university press PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS MATERIAL Multiple Modernities: A Tale of Scandinavian Experiences by Gunnar Skirbekk © The Chinese University of Hong Kong 2011 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from The Chinese University of Hong Kong. ISBN 978-962-996-487-0COPYRIGHT The Chinese University Press The Chinese University of Hong Kong Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong Fax: +852 2603 6692 +852 2603 7355 E-mail: [email protected] Web-site: www.chineseupress.com Text layout by Tony Tang, Twin Age Ltd. Printed in Hong Kong PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS contents Acknowledgments vii chapter 1 1 Introduction How Do We Conceptualize Modernization Processes? chapter 2 19 Processes of Modernization in Norway in the 19th Century: 1814–1884. Interplay between Lutheran State Officials and Popular vementsMo chapter 3 45 The Interplay of Persons and Institutions: 1880–1920. A Local Case chapter 4 MATERIAL 61 Modernization Processes under Democratic Parliamentarianism until WWII: 1884–1940 chapter 5 81 An Overview of Early Phases of Modernization in Norway chapter 6 117 Processes of Modernization in Norway Since WWII: Social Imaginaries and Forms of Rationality chapterCOPYRIGHT 7 147 Epistemic Challenges and Argumentative Rationality: Science and Education, the Public Sphere, and Politics chapter 8 179 Processes of Modernization in a Globalized World: Universality, Plurality, and Sustainability? References 201 Index 219 PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS MATERIAL COPYRIGHT PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS Acknowledgments I would like to express my gratitude to all those who at different stages have offered me constructive criticism of various drafts, versions, or parts of this manuscript. Their generous collabora tion has been most helpful. Special thanks go to the Swedish Col legium for Advanced Study in the Social Sciences, Uppsala (by Björn Wittrock), and East China Normal University, Shanghai (by Shijun Tong) for conferences that helped to prompt this project. This being said, I bear responsibility for remaining shortcomings of any sort. Bergen 2010 G.S. MATERIAL COPYRIGHT PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS MATERIAL COPYRIGHT PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS chapter 1 Introduction How Do We Conceptualize Modernization Processes? What does it mean to be modern? BeingMATERIAL modern, how should it be conceived and evaluated? These questions have fostered exten sive discussions since the dawn of the modern age.1 And recently a re- newed concern has arisen for two primary reasons: (i) Tensions between “the West and the Rest” have caused a renewed concern for questions about “multiple moderni- ties,”2 situated along the dimension between universality and plurality: How universal or how “western” (or how pe- COPYRIGHTculiar in other ways) are the processes of modernization? (ii) Recent crises, such as the increasing number of environ- mental challenges, have intensified the critical debate on the core aspects of modernization processes: To what extent may these processes be seen as progressive and desirable, and to what extent as negative and unsustainable? What should we think and what should we do? Facing the future, there is evidently a need for more adequate conceptions and ap- proaches. PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2 | multiple modernities “Scandinavian Model”? These questions affect us all. But as a starter, a personal remark: Over the years I have collaborated with colleagues, especially in France, Germany, and the United States, and more recently in China.3 The experience of crossing borders and being exposed to different cultural and intellectual traditions nourishes an awareness of the ways that cul- tures and societies can be seen as similar or dissimilar and, thereby, of the ways they may be seen as modern. In my case, experiences of this kind gave rise to self-reflective ques tions concerning mod- ernization processes in my own corner of the world, that is, in the Scandinavian (Nordic) countries.4 What can be said about universal or unique processes of moderniza tion in this northwestern corner of Europe, possibly in contrast to mainstream narratives of western modernization, be it the French, the British, or the German? When such questions are raised, thereMATERIAL is a trend among for eign observers to refer to the “Scandinavian model,” and often in positive terms:5 egalitarian democracies with social welfare and economic ef- ficiency. Hence, the Scandinavian countries are of interest as cases of successful modernization processes. However, these references to a Scandinavian model tend to focus on the mid 20th century, often on the postwar period after World War II. But in my view, as a basic hy- pothesis, the uniqueness of modern ization processes in Scandinavia, for instance in Norway, is better conceived of by focusing on the 19th centuryCOPYRIGHT with a continuation into the 20th century. The Main Approach “Modernity” and “modernization” may be understood in various ways. In this essay the approach is an attempt to conceive moder­ nity and modernization processes in terms of versions of rationality. Moreover, rationality is here conceived of as action­based and thus as situated in historical agents and institutions. By this approach the development and usage of various kinds of scientific expertise are seen PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS introduction | 3 as primary issues.6 The same is true for learning processes inherent in sociopolitical practices.7 These are formative processes with a major impact on our self- understanding and social identity, on how we conceive of our selves and the world. In this essay the aim is not to describe historical facts. Our aim is something else: to conceptualize selected cases of moderniza tion processes seen in an overall perspective on modernization in terms of forms of practice-related rationality. This is our approach. And hence, there is a challenge: By this ap- proach we apply a terminology that may appear as unusual and, thus, as an obstacle. This challenge could be met by explanations of unusual words and expressions. But in those cases, when not only the words but the underlying concepts are unusual and unknown, it is hardly enough to exchange one word for another. In such cases the explanation should include learning processesMATERIAL by which the reader acquires concepts one did not have before or did not have in that par- ticular way. (Our praxis-based and socially situated notion of ratio- nality is not commonplace.) Due to these methodological challenges some theoretical remarks are added at the end of this chapter. Not “Ordinary Historiography” This essay is not an “ordinary historiography,” and, thus, there is a challenge: Our presentation of selected cases of Norwegian mod- ernizationCOPYRIGHT processes may erroneously be read as ordinary histori- cal narratives and not as an attempt to conceptualize uni versal and specific modernization processes in a peculiar, overall perspective. Therefore, it is important to hold to the peculiar approach and spe- cific aim underlying this essay. This is important also because such at- tempts to conceptualize are fallible and tentativ e—they are attempts, and thus the genre is that of an essay.8 This essay is written with broad strokes of the pen, on the as- sumption that most foreign readers have a limited interest in the PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS 4 | multiple modernities historical details of a small nation. But for those who are inter ested in further comments and useful references I have added nu merous and extensive endnotes. Seen in this overall perspective, the selected modernization pro- cesses in Norway of the 19th century appear as an amazing story, whereas the postwar period is more ambiguous in this re spect. Hence, in this essay we look at two interrelated periods, first by fo- cusing on selected modernization processes in the 19th century and then by focusing on similar processes after World War II—the for- mer as a “trip up,” the latter as a “trip down.”9 Main Messages This essay has a double message: (i) “Western modernization” is widely multiple.10 But still there are universal characteristics, com mon to all modernization processes, “western” MATERIALas well as “non western.” (ii) Scandinavian processes of modernization are indeed interesting. But then we should look at the 19th century rather than (and as a precondition for) the “Scandinavian model” of the mid 20th century and the post- war period. Theoretical Remarks At this point we focus on questions of a general nature as to how we go about conceptualizing the selected modernization processes. We takeCOPYRIGHT a look at the theoretical preconditions of our overall ap- proach where practice-related rationality plays a major role.11 Based on our philosophical approach, modernity and process­ es of modernization are conceived in terms of different kinds of practice-based rationality. On the one hand rationality is here con- ceived in terms of the activity in which we are involved, here and now, when we try to find good reasons for something being true or right. In this sense practice-based rationality presents itself as self-referring and binding. On the other hand, practice-based PROPERTY OF THE CHINESE UNIVERSITY PRESS introduction | 5 rationality can be seen as a “situated” activity, for instance by the development of scientific and scholarly activities and the use of differ ent kinds of scientific and scholarly expertise, but also through cul tural and sociopolitical learning processes, embedded in agents and institutions.