"The Interface Between Global Hegemony and Cultural Marginalization: Agency, Education and Development Among Indigenous Peoples." By: Shane Theunissen A Dissertation Submitted to Saint Mary’s University, Halifax Nova Scotia in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Ph.D. in International Development Studies © Shane Theunissen 2017 Approved: Dr. Anthony H. O’Malley Supervisor Approved: Dr. Esther E. Enns Committee member Approved: Dr. Pamela Toulouse Committee member Approved: Dr. Jean-Paul Restoule External Examiner Date: April 26, 2017 2 Acknowledgements It is with gratitude and love that I acknowledge the support of Dr. Anthony O’Malley as my mentor, teacher, and friend. Thank-you for the life you have enabled my family to live. Thank-you to Lee-Ann, Jack and Grace for your love, patience, support, and infectious laughter. I am especially grateful to Dr. Esther E. Enns for her contributions in helping me refine my methodology. I am indebted to Dr. Dansereau for removing my methodological blinker, and our spontaneous chats. Thank-you to the examining committee for your time and energy. 3 Table of Contents Table of Contents ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3 Abstract ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 1. Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8 1.2 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 1.2.1 Western education as endogenous and exogenous ---------------------------------------------- 11 1.3 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14 1.3.1 Education, Endogenous Development and Indigenous Peoples ----------------------------- 14 1.4 Diversity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16 1.5 Case Studies --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19 2. Literature Review ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23 2.1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23 2.2 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 2.3 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25 2.4 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31 2.5 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32 2.6 Te Wero-The Challenge ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 33 3. Does the Existence of a Watch Compel Belief in an Intelligent Watchmaker?An exploration of the definition of case studies. ------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 3.1 Introduction: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 3.2 Statement of my Methodological Problem: --------------------------------------------------------- 36 3.3 Defining the Context: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 38 3.4 A Conceptual Model: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47 3.4.1 Differentiating/Defining the Limits of Case Studies Using This Model: ------------------ 49 3.4.1a Epistemology: Relations with knowledge ------------------------------------------------------- 50 3.4.1b Self: Relations with self. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51 3.4.1c Others: Relations with community. --------------------------------------------------------------- 51 3.4.1d Environment: Relations with Oikos: -------------------------------------------------------------- 52 3.4.2 Internal Expansion as a Shift in Axiological Relations: --------------------------------------- 53 3.5 Conclusions: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54 4 3.5.1 Normative Research Approach: --------------------------------------------------------------------- 57 3.5.2 Units of Analysis: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58 3.5.3 Case Studies: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60 3.5.4 Analysis of the data: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62 3.5.6 A New Model of the Global/Local Interface for Endogenous Development through Education: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63 3.5.6a The Interface: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64 3.5.6 b The Universal: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68 3.5.6c The Particular: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70 4.The King is Dead. Long Live the King. -------------------------------------------------------------------- 72 4.1 Introduction: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72 4.2 Defining the Concepts/Terms: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74 4.2.1 The Middle Ground ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 74 4.2.2 Opportunity versus Imperative: --------------------------------------------------------------------- 77 4.2.3 Ontological Vulnerability ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80 4.2.4 Noetic Space --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83 4.2.5 Revalorization ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 84 4.2.6 Heuristic Thinking -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 90 4.2.6a The implications for heuristics as determined by the evolution of Indigenous and Western cultural experiences. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 92 4.3 Developing a Genuine Tradition -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93 5.Indigenous Knowledge is of the place. But it is also of a particular time. ------------------------ 94 5.1 Case Studies: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 94 5.2 Why teach them something they already know? (Canessa, 2012 p. 198) ----------------------- 95 5.2.1 History ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 97 5.2.1a Pre-Inca period: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 97 5.2.1b Inca period: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 99 5.2.1c Colonial Period: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100 5.2.1d Early Republican period: -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 104 5.2.1e The Republic in the Twentieth Century: ------------------------------------------------------- 108 5.2.1e The return of Pachamama: ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 115 5 5.2.2 The Aymara Noetic Space: The state always exists, although in some societies it is endlessly thwarted” (Zibechi, 2010 p.82). ------------------------------------------------------------- 125 5.2.3 Transformation: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 140 5.3 Maori People of Aotearoa -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 156 5.3.1 Context: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 159 5.3.2 Turangiwaewae and the New Zealand Wars. -------------------------------------------------- 166 5.3.3 After the Land Court Ruling: ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 170 5.3.4 Noetic Space: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 173 5.3.4a The Emergence of Marae: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 174 5.3.5 Enduring Disparity as a Consequence of Cultural Difference: ---------------------------- 179 5.3.6 Educational Underachievement amongst Maori and Disparities in Socio-Economic Status ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 181 5.3.6 A Focus on Cultural Erosion as Opposed to Educational Underachievement: --------- 183 5.3.7 A Shift in Thinking: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 184 5.3.8 Do Maori Even Require Different Schools? --------------------------------------------------- 187 5.3.9 Levels of Consciousness: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------