Tall Buildings and Elevators Historical Evolution of Vertical Communication Systems João Miguel Serras Delgado Valente Final Thesis for the Degree of Master in Civil Engineering Jury President: Prof. Doutor José Manuel Matos Noronha da Câmara Supervisor: Prof. Doutor João Carlos de Oliveira Fernandes de Almeida Vowel: Prof. Doutor João Sérgio Nobre Duarte Cruz I Tall Buildings and Elevators Historical Evolution of vertical communication systems Abstract This paper addresses the evolution of tall buildings in their relation with structural systems and vertical communication systems. The main proposition is to take the historical development of structural solutions and elevator solutions to understand how both these aspects have shaped tall buildings that are being built today. Whenever deemed relevant these aspects are accompanied by brief description of social and economic context that could contribute to a broader notion of the motives and restrains towards building tall. For the purposes of the above stated, there is an initial presentation on what a tall building is, how it can be defined and what aspects can contribute to that definition, afterwards a classification for the several systems will be presented. Then the history of tall buildings is broken down into several chapters that were found to carry significant relevance according to consulted bibliography; these chapters are defined in accordance with major changes in the paradigm for the conception of tall buildings. To further illustrate this distinction some short notes on relevant historical factors are given. Finally, conclusions are present regarding the parallels between structural development and technical evolution of vertical communication. Keywords: Tall buildings, skyscrapers, elevators, vertical communication systems I Aknowledgement I would first like to express my gratitude to Professor João Almeida for his support, guidance and encouragement through this long process. I also thank Professor Dario Trabucco, of Università IUAV di Venezia, for his much appreciated advice and reading recommendations which have contributed extensively to the development of this document. To Mr. Johannes Maasberg, of Jappsen Ingenieure, and Professor Mona Domosh, of Dartmouth Colledge, I would like to express my appreciation of their availability and willingness to help. Finally, I would like to thank my family, and I would like to thank my friends, and I would like to entertain the thought they know very well why. à minha família, .obrigado. III Table of Contents 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 The importance of tall buildings ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 “How high is tall?”...................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 The importance of vertical communication systems in tall buildings ......................................... 2 1.4 How the thesis is structured ........................................................................................................ 2 2 Structural Form .................................................................................................................................. 3 2.1 Structural design strategies ......................................................................................................... 3 2.1.1 Role of the structural engineer ................................................................................................ 3 2.1.2 Explaining structural efficiency .............................................................................................. 4 2.1.3 Lateral loading ........................................................................................................................ 5 2.2 Tall building structures ............................................................................................................... 7 2.2.1 Structural materials ................................................................................................................. 7 2.2.2 Classification of Tall Building Structural Systems ................................................................. 8 2.2.3 Brief analysis of structural systems according to behavior ................................................... 14 3 Vertical Communication Systems ................................................................................................... 22 3.1 Building height criteria and elevator systems ........................................................................... 22 3.2 How elevators affect tall buildings ........................................................................................... 22 3.3 Discussing the service core ....................................................................................................... 24 3.4 Regulatory and safety aspects of elevators ............................................................................... 28 3.5 Evelator systems - current trends. ............................................................................................. 29 3.5.1 Basic elevator elements ........................................................................................................ 30 3.5.2 Elevator arrangements for tall buildings ............................................................................... 31 4 Historical perspective ....................................................................................................................... 39 4.1 Relevant periods, how the chapter is structured ........................................................................ 39 4.2 Birth of the Skyscraper to New York zoning law of 1916 ........................................................ 41 4.2.1 Social and economic context ................................................................................................ 41 4.2.2 Relevant technology ............................................................................................................. 42 4.2.3 Building typology and Architecture ..................................................................................... 46 4.3 1916 to Second World War (WWII) ......................................................................................... 51 V 4.3.1 Social and economic context ................................................................................................ 51 4.3.2 Relevant Technology ............................................................................................................ 55 4.3.3 Building typology and architecture ...................................................................................... 57 4.4 Post WWII to 1970s energy crisis ............................................................................................. 60 4.4.1 Social and economic situation .............................................................................................. 60 4.4.2 Relevant technology ............................................................................................................. 62 4.4.3 Building Typology and Architecture .................................................................................... 69 4.5 After the energy Crisis .............................................................................................................. 73 4.5.1 Social and economic context ................................................................................................ 73 4.5.2 Relevant Technology ............................................................................................................ 74 4.6 Rise of an Environmental consciousness (1997) to the present day ......................................... 78 4.6.1 Social and economic situation .............................................................................................. 78 4.6.2 Relevant technology ............................................................................................................. 79 4.6.3 Building layout and architecture ........................................................................................... 82 5 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 84 5.1 Tall building development and the economy ............................................................................ 84 5.2 Tall Building trends .................................................................................................................. 85 5.2.1 From North America to Asia ................................................................................................ 87 5.2.2 Building Use ......................................................................................................................... 88 5.2.3 Structural Material ................................................................................................................ 88 5.3 Elevators and Structures ........................................................................................................... 89 6 Bibliography...................................................................................................................................... 92 VI Table of Figures Figure 1 - CEB Bulletin D’Information Nº 209 – Vibration Problems in Structures