Body of Victim, Body of Warrior South Asia Across the Disciplines Edited by Dipesh Chakrabarty, Sheldon Pollock, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam South Asia Across the Disciplines is a series devoted to publishing fi rst books across a wide range of South Asian studies, including art, history, philology or textual studies, philosophy, religion, and interpretive social sciences. Contributors all share the goal of opening up new archives, especially in South Asian languages, and suggesting new methods and approaches, while demonstrating that South Asian scholarship can be at once deep in expertise and broad in appeal. Funded by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and jointly published by the University of California Press, the University of Chicago Press, and Columbia University Press. Read more about the series at http://www.saacrossdisciplin es.org. Extreme Poetry: Th e South Asian Movement of Simultaneous Narration, by Yigal Bronner (Columbia University Press, 2010) Th e Social Space of Language: Vernacular Culture in British Colonial Punjab, by Farina Mir (University of California Press, 2010) Unifying Hinduism: Th e Philosophy of Vijnanabhiksu in Indian Intellectual History, by Andrew J. Nicholson (Columbia University Press, 2010) Secularizing Islamists?: Jama‘at-e-Islami and Jama ‘at-ud-Da‘wa in Urban Pakistan, by Humeira Iqtidar (University of Chicago Press, 2011) Islam Translated: Literature, Conversion, and the Arabic Cosmopolis of South and Southeast Asia, by Ronit Ricci (University of Chicago Press, 2011) Conjugations: Marriage and Form in New Bollywood Cinema, by Sangita Gopal (University of Chicago Press, 2011) Th e Powerful Ephemeral: Everyday Healing in an Ambiguously Islamic Place, by Carla Bellamy (University of California Press, 2011) Body of Victim, Body of Warrior: Refugee Families and the Making of Kashmiri Jihadists, by Cabeiri deBergh Robinson (University of California Press, 2013) Body of Victim, Body of Warrior Refugee Families and the Making of Kashmiri Jihadists Cabeiri deBergh Robinson university of california press Berkeley Los Angeles London University of California Press, one of the most distinguished university presses in the United States, enriches lives around the world by advancing scholarship in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Its activities are supported by the UC Press Foundation and by philanthropic contributions from individuals and institutions. For more information, visit www.ucpress.edu. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California University of California Press, Ltd. London, England © 2013 by Th e Regents of the University of California Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on fi le with the Library of Congress isbn 978-0-520-27420-4—isbn 978-0-520-27421-1 Manufactured in the United States of America 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 In keeping with a commitment to support environmentally responsible and sustainable printing practices, UC Press has printed this book on Rolland Enviro100, a 100% post-consumer fi ber paper that is FSC certifi ed, deinked, processed chlorine-free, and manufactured with renewable biogas energy. It is acid-free and EcoLogo certifi ed. contents List of Illustrations vii List of Abbreviations ix Note on Names, Transliteration, and Photographs xi Preface: Th e Kashmir Dispute and the Confl icts Within Confl ict Ethnography xiii Acknowledgments xxiii Introduction: Th e Social Production of Jihād 1 Part One Between Hijarat and Jihād in Azad Kashmir 1 • Between War and Refuge in Jammu and Kashmir: Displacement, Borders, and the Boundaries of Political Belonging 31 2 Protective Migration and Armed Struggle: Political Violence and the Limits of Victimization in Islam 67 Part Two The Historical Emergence of Kashmiri Refugees as Political Subjects 3 Forging Political Identities, 1947–1988: Th e South Asian Refugee Regime and Refugee Resettlement Villages 99 4 Transforming Political Identities, 1989–2001: Refugee Camps in Azad Jammu and Kashmir and the International Refugee Regime 137 Part Three Body of Victim, Body of Warrior 5 Human Rights and Jihād: Victimization and the Sovereignty of the Body 171 6 Th e Mujāhid as Family-Man: Sex, Death, and the Warrior’s (Im)pure Body 201 Conclusion: From Muhājir to Mujāhid to Jihādī in the Global Order of Th ings 229 Postscript: And, “Humanitarian Jihād” 237 Notes 243 Glossary 275 Bibliography 277 Index 311 vi • contents List of Illustrations Maps 1. Th e Former Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir (2012). 17 2. Th e Azad State of Jammu and Kashmir (2001). 18 3. Th e Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir (1946). 47 4. Th e Divided Territories of Jammu and Kashmir (aft er 1950). 48 5. Refugee Camps in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (1990–2005). 148 Figures 1. Document facsimile of a Hereditary State Subject Certifi cate (issued by the Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir in 1929). 113 2. Document facsimile of a Proprietary Rights Transfer Order (issued by the Azad Jammu and Kashmir Custodian of Evacuee Property in 1989). 122 3. Document facsimile of a Jammu and Kashmir State Resident Certifi cate (issued by the Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council in 1996). 129 4. Protesters marching (Islamabad, 2000). 172 5. Mujāhidīn leading protest march (Islamabad, 2000). 173 6. Cover fl ap of a political card (circulated in Pakistan, 1999). 176 vii 7. Inside fl ap of a political card (circulated in Pakistan, 1999). 177 8. Training camp recruitment poster (northern Pakistan, 2000). 180 9. Collection box for charitable donations to the Kashmir Jihad (northern Pakistan, 2001). 189 10. Collection tent for sacrifi cial hides (northern Pakistan, 2000). 190 viii • List of Illustrations List of Abbreviations AJK Azad Jammu and Kashmir AJKMC All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference AJKNC All Jammu and Kashmir National Conference APHC All Party Hurriyat Conference BSF (Indian) Border Security Force IDP Internally Displaced Person ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross INGO International Non-Governmental Organization IRO International Refugees Organization ISI (Pakistani) Inter-Services Intelligence JKLF Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front KRCRC Kashmir Refugees Central Relief Committee LoC Line of Control MAJ Muhammad Ali Jinnah Papers (National Archives of Pakistan) MFJ Mohtarmah Fatima Jinnah Papers (National Archives) MI (Pakistani) Military Intelligence MKA Ministry of Kashmir Aff airs NAP National Archives of Pakistan NWFP North West Frontier Provinces PMLWC Punjab Muslim League Women’s Committee ix QARF Quaid-i-Azam Relief Fund RAW (Indian) Research Analysis Wing UJC United Jihad Council UN United Nations UNAC United Nations Appeal for Children UNCIP United Nations Commission on India and Pakistan UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund WRC Women’s Relief Committee x • List of Abbreviations Note on Names, Transliteration, and Photographs In this book, I refer to the distinct governmental regions of the disputed territory of Jamm u and Kashmir by the names by which they are identi- fi ed in their own current constitutional documents. In Pakistan, the State of Azad Jammu and Kashmir is commonly referred to as “Azad Kashmir” (Free Kashmir) and in India it is known as “POK” (Pakistan Occupied Kashmir). I employ its full constitutional name except when I am presenting ethno- graphic materials, in which case I reproduce names like “Azad Kashmir” and “Occupied Kashmir” in order not to distort the speakers’ intentions. For the sake of consistency and clarity, I refer to its government as the government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Likewise, I refer to the 1949 UN Ceasefi re Line as the military “Line of Control,” even though it wasn’t offi cially renamed until the Simla Agreement of 1972. Following anthropological convention, I use pseudonyms in my presenta- tion of all ethnographic information. For unmarried youths and young men, I use only a single name. I use two names for older men to whom I owe the respect due to an elder, but in order to avoid the confusion that would result from using a fi ctive second name linked to descent-group identities, I use two male fi rst names. Women generally have as a second name the fi rst name of their father or of their husband; I use the second name “Bibi” for younger women and “Begum” for elder women. In my presentation of historical mate- rial, such as documents or memoirs, I use real names as recorded in the public or governmental record. Transliteration of Urdu words follows the system standardized by John T. Platts in A Dictionary of Urdū, Classical Hindī, and English and refl ects xi the standard spelling of the word as it is written. I do not use diacritical markings in any personal names, proper nouns, or adjectives generated from proper nouns (such as “Kashmiri” or “Pakistani”) unless they are a part of an Urdu language phrase. In the case of political parties and militant organiza- tions for which there are several alternative English transliterations in use, I employ a common one. Th e term jihād has entered into English-language usage in the past decade. As an English word, jihad is used to refer to Islamic religious warfare. As an Islamicate word, however, the term has a more variegated meaning; it can refer to a struggle in either spiritual or material realms. In this text, I retain the hard diacritic to mark the fact that it has also become a dialectical term, jihād, which refers simultaneously to its use within specifi c Muslim societies and to its integration into a global political vocabulary. I use the term as a foreign word (jihād) to mark its use (1) as an ethnographic distinction within translated ethnographic quotes to draw attention to the speaker’s original use of the term; and (2) as a purely Islamic concept in religious texts. I deploy a grammatically unconventional plural in this text to make another ethnographic distinction; muhājirīn is the correct grammatical plural of muhājir (refugee) and mujāhidīn of mujāhid (warrior), but I use English plurals (muhājirs and mujāhids) to indicate a plurality of individuals as opposed to a collectivity.