Spousal Sexual Assault in Canada and Nigeria: A Substantive Equality Approach by Falilat Mobolaji Ibrahim A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF LAWS Robson Hall, Faculty of Law University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2016 Falilat Mobolaji Ibrahim ii Abstract This study examines spousal sexual assault laws in Nigeria and Canada through the lens of substantive equality. The aim is to show that only when a substantive-equality approach is used for legislation and adjudication of spousal sexual assault can victims fairly seek and realize justice. This is because substantive equality considers broader socio-economic and cultural contexts that support this crime, including exposing stereotypes that underpin its legislation and adjudication. The study shows that in Nigeria and Canada spousal sexual assault is endemic and that women are disproportionately represented as victims and men as perpetrators. Failures to apply the principles of substantive equality in adjudicating spousal sexual assault lead to the flaws in evidentiary procedures involving this crime. The study concludes that it is important to revise criminal laws and evidentiary procedures in Nigeria and Canada using substantive equality principles. iii Acknowledgements The completion of this thesis is made possible through the collaborative effort of many people, all of whom I owe an unqualified debt of gratitude. My sincere gratitude is first to my thesis advisor, Prof. Karen Busby, for her open door policy during the process of my thesis writing. I cannot thank you enough for your guidance, constructive corrections, comments and for how you enlarged the horizons of my thinking and critical engagement with issues. The high standards you set for every chapter of this thesis made all the difference. I equally thank my co-advisor, Prof Debra Parkes, for all her insightful and invaluable input to my thesis. The inspiring sessions I was privileged to have with you, particularly during the Charter class you taught, sharpened my insight during the whole of this research process. Your dedication and hard work also contributed immensely to the ease of my transition from a Nigerian to a Canadian academic system. My sincere gratitude is also to Dr. Joyce Chadya for her invaluable comments and suggestions on how to strengthen this thesis. I am also grateful to Dr. Mary Sharif for her thought-provoking questions and comments, all of which helped me to sharpen the focus of this research. My gratitude to Aimee Craft for the knowledge gained in the gender and women studies class. My sincere gratitude goes to the staffs and members of the Robson Hall for all support rendered at different stages of the program. A special appreciation to Maria Tepper, Marie Jivan and Donna Sikorsky for the help, the smiles and the encouragement. I thank all the friends whose words and show of friendship and love made me strong during this period: Soji Akinlabi, Oyin, Ifeloluwa Fadeyi, Samuel Adeniyi, Tope Joseph, Adeolu iv Joseph, Chiedza, Katie, Dunni and Leroy. A special thanks to Big Mummy – Mrs. Joseph – for making Canada feel like home and for all the smiles and Nigerian food. Most importantly, this research would not have seen the light of day without the support, sacrifice and love of my immediate family. Sharon, you drove me insane with questions about my progress but you also made me see why I could not give up. Mum and Dad, you are my stronghold. Kola, Precious and Bobo, thank you for all the encouraging words. To a friend like no other, my family – Macabees – you were my anchor and compass through this program, just like you always have been. Thanks for not letting me quit! Lastly, immense gratitude to Adalsteinn Fridrikson Kristjansson, David T. Sgayias and the International Graduate Student for the financial aid without which it would have been impossible to undertake this project with ease of mind. v Dedication To the voices in my head! vi Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... iii Dedication ..................................................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................... vi Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter One: Spousal Sexual Assault in Canada and Nigeria: History and Context .......................... 9 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 9 What is Spousal Sexual Assault? ......................................................................................................... 11 A Historical Review of Marital Rape Exemption–the Common Law of England .......................... 12 Theories about the Exemption of Marital Rape ................................................................................. 15 Property Theory .................................................................................................................................. 16 Unity Theory ....................................................................................................................................... 18 Implied and Irrevocable Consent Theory ........................................................................................... 20 The Privacy and Reconciliation Theory .............................................................................................. 22 Other Rationales for Marital Rape Exemption ................................................................................... 24 Chipping Away at Marital Rape Exemption ...................................................................................... 26 Marital Rape Exemption in Canada and Nigeria .............................................................................. 27 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 28 Chapter Two: Equality in Canadian and Nigerian Jurisprudence: Conceptual Framework ........... 30 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 30 What is Equality? .................................................................................................................................. 32 Formal Equality: Like-Treatment and Equality of Opportunity ..................................................... 33 Substantive Equality ............................................................................................................................. 37 Conceptions of Equality in Canada ..................................................................................................... 39 The Charter and Language of Substantive Equality .......................................................................... 40 Supreme Court of Canada and Substantive Equality ....................................................................... 41 Quebec v A: The New Approach to Section 15(1)? ............................................................................. 45 Features of Substantive Equality in Canada ...................................................................................... 47 Other Characteristics of Substantive Equality in Canada ................................................................ 51 Conception of Equality in Nigeria ....................................................................................................... 52 vii Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 60 Chapter 3: Spousal Sexual Assault in Nigeria: An Argument for a Substantive-Equality Approach .................................................................................................................................................................... 62 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 62 Prevalence of Spousal Sexual Assault in Nigeria ............................................................................... 65 The Place of Women in Nigeria: General Indicators of Women’s Inequality ................................. 67 Socio-Economic and Legal Situation of Women ................................................................................. 67 Cultural Practices and Women in Nigeria .......................................................................................... 69 Federalism, Pluralism and Criminal Law in Nigeria: Implications for Women ............................ 72 Legal Framework for Tackling Spousal Sexual Assault in Nigeria.................................................. 77 Carnal Knowledge/Penetration .........................................................................................................