A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF MEANING-MAKING IN A NIGERIAN LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE: THE EXAMPLE OF ÌBÀDÀN A Dissertation by AKINBIYI ADETUNJI Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies Texas A&M University-Commerce in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2013 A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF MEANING MAKING IN A NIGERIAN LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE: THE EXAMPLE OF ÌBÀDÀN A Dissertation by AKINBIYI ADETUNJI Approved by Advisor: Robert Baumgardner Committee: Donna Dunbar-Odom Shannon Carter Maria Hinojosa Head of Department: Hunter Hayes Dean of the College: Salvatore Attardo Dean of Graduate Studies: Arlene Horne iii Copyright © 2013 Akinbiyi Adetunji iv ABSTRACT A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF MEANING-MAKING IN A NIGERIAN LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE: THE EXAMPLE OF ÌBÀDÀN Akinbiyi Adetunji, PhD Texas A&M University-Commerce, 2013 Advisor: Robert Baumgardner, PhD Although much research has gone into the sociolinguistics of the linguistic landscape (space for and language of public signs) in the "peripheral," non-native contexts of English Language use and users, none has been specifically devoted to a Nigerian context. This dissertation is intended to fill this wide gap. Focusing on the Ìbàdàn linguistic landscape and sampling photographic data from its 11 local government areas, the study addresses three main concerns—how meaning is made by the producers and expected to be understood by the consumers of this linguistic landscape, what is communicated about the status of English in Nigeria, and how this linguistic landscape provides valuable sociolinguistic information about Nigerian English in the context of World Englishes. Drawing heavily on Backhaus' (2007) sociolinguistic framework, as inflected with insights from Scollon and Scollon's (2003) linguistic semiotics, the study combines quantitative and qualitative research methods to identify the significances of the meanings made on the linguistic landscape, as related to sign-production (agency), sign-consumption (readership), and the dynamics of the languages on signs. v Results show two clearly demarcated types of signs, top-down (official) and bottom-up (non-official). In both types, the linguistic landscape is used to perform both informational and symbolic functions, English is the preferred and dominant language, and the preferred code is usually placed at the top of sign. However, there are more bottom-up than top-down signs, top- down signs are almost entirely non-commercial and contain six languages, and bottom-up signs show a variety of commercial and non-commercial content expressed in three languages. The findings unveil a reader-orientation anchored in six languages, a prevalence of monophonic signs and overt multilingualism, and idiosyncratic uses of English and Yorùbá. The English on this landscape is varied, containing Standard, non-Standard, and localized forms, thereby confirming the existence of a Nigerian variety of English. Given the fact that Yorùbá is the language predominantly spoken in Ìbàdàn, this dissertation claims that the linguistic landscape does not reflect the reality of language use in Ìbàdàn, and suggests that the boundaries between native and non-native uses of English may be more blurred than thought. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To God be the utmost glory, for a great thing He has done. The primary thanks go to the members of my dissertation committee, Drs. Robert Baumgardner (my main advisor), Donna Dunbar-Odom, Shannon Carter, and Maria Hinojosa who midwived this dissertation, despite their naturally-tight schedules, in a speedy yet pain- staking manner. Without you and your scholarly diligence, this dissertation wouldn't have been a success story. I am eternally grateful. The contributions of Dr. Salvatore Attardo are also note-worthy. But for his kind-heart, I wouldn't have found my way to the U.S., let alone procure a doctoral degree. He not only facilitated my coming to America (like the title of that classic movie), he also provided all that would ease the initial worries of a stranger in a different "world." I appreciate. I acknowledge dearly the moral and spiritual support of all the members of my family, nuclear and extended, who contributed one way or the other to this happy ending: a special mention is made of Deola (my sister) and FTJ (her husband) who gave me the moral and financial support when the going began getting tough; a very special recognition is accorded my parents, abiyam tòót (parents indeed), who gave everything to make this happen; the most resounding gratitude goes to my wonderful and understanding wife, Gbemisola, who told me to proceed from the very first day and made sure that our lovely children, Omolade and Adedoyin, did not suffer the lack of a father-figure. I acknowledge the magnanimity of my employers, Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, , who granted the study-leave which enabled me embark upon this three-odd years of academic sojourn. I am also grateful to the members of the College's Management and the College's Governing Council who used their good offices to influence the financial support vii that enabled a successful completion of this doctoral journey. I pray the Almighty God meets you at the points of your need. My friends, classmates, and colleagues, too numerous to mention, also provided the valuable emotional support, especially when I had serious health issues. Finally, I must not fail to mention the support of Tola, my sibling and research assistant, who eased some of my worries regarding data collection. You are all highly appreciated. May God bless you all. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1 The linguistic landscape and the English language ............................................... 1 The place of the English Language in the world ................................................... 3 A sociolinguistic profile of Nigeria ....................................................................... 9 A sociolinguistic profile of Ìbàdàn ...................................................................... 21 Sociolinguistics and meaning-making ................................................................. 24 Aims and objectives of study ............................................................................... 25 Significance of study ............................................................................................ 25 Research questions ............................................................................................... 26 Outline of chapters ............................................................................................... 27 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................................................................... 28 Operationalizing the linguistic landscape ............................................................ 28 Definitions ................................................................................................ 28 Scope ........................................................................................................ 31 Introduction .................................................................................. 31 Sign .............................................................................................. 32 Sign-Producer .............................................................................. 37 Sign-Consumer ............................................................................ 40 ix Functions .................................................................................................. 43 Other methodological issues .................................................................... 44 Theoretical approaches to linguistic landscape research ..................................... 47 Backhaus' sociolinguistic framework .................................................................. 57 Summary ............................................................................................................. 59 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 60 Survey area ........................................................................................................... 61 Specific decisions ................................................................................................. 62 Prolific LLs .............................................................................................. 63 Local or (inter)national landmarks ........................................................... 63 Sorting of signs ........................................................................................ 64 Data collection procedure .................................................................................... 68 Unit of analysis .................................................................................................... 69 Analytical framework .......................................................................................... 71 Sign-production ........................................................................................ 71 Sign-consumption ...................................................................................