DOWN WITH THE EMBARGO: SOCIAL MOVEMENTS, CONTENTIOUS POLITICS AND U.S. CUBA POLICY (1960-2006) By INDIRA RAMPERSAD A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2007 1 © 2007 Indira Rampersad 2 For Ma whose unconditional love, boundless energy, unrelenting support, profound faith and calm patience made this project possible 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my deepest appreciation to my adviser, Dr. Terry McCoy whose boundless patience, calm tolerance and careful advice over the years have made this dissertation an enjoyable and worthwhile experience. Special thank gos to Dr. Leslie Anderson for her diligence and unrelenting support throughout the course of this project especially during the writing stage. Thanks also to the other members of my committee, Dr. Oren and Dr. Dodd, who were always willing to provide a listening ear to my issues and ideas and to Dr. Reynaldo Jiminez, my external examiner, for his contribution in the examining process. Heartfelt appreciation to Dr. Leann Brown, Dr. Peggy Kohn and especially Dr. Dennis Jett on whose shoulders I could always lean for trustworthy advice. To Sue, Debbie and Brisha, I extend warmest gratitude. Thanks also go to my extended family at UF’s International Center, Debra and Maud, who took great care of me during my stay at UF. Sincerest gratitude goes to the extended Caribbean posse for all the fun times and for making Gainesville a comfortable home away from home. Thanks go to the Laspau Fulbright Commission for funding my first 2 years of the Ph.D program. Heartfelt appreciation goes to the Ruth McQuown Grant Committee which supported my field research in D.C., New York and Miami. Deepest gratitude also goes to the Department of Political Science for funding the last 3 years of my education at UF. Kind appreciation to Sandra Levinson, Wayne Smith, Kirby Jones, Claire Rodríguez, Silvia Wilhelm, Alvaro Fernández and all the other unrelenting anti-embargo activists throughout the United States. Many, many thanks go to my loving family and friends in Trinidad, New York and Toronto who have been a bulwark of support throughout the years. And last but not least, thanks go to my dear mum whose love, patience, wisdom, loyalty and devotion have been unfathomable and unsurpassed in the course of this project. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4 LIST OF TABLES...........................................................................................................................8 LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................9 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................................10 ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................11 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................13 History of the U.S. Embargo on Cuba....................................................................................13 Curiosity, Contributions and Challenges................................................................................20 Dissertation Structure .............................................................................................................22 2 TOWARDS A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.......24 Limitations of International Relations Theory .......................................................................24 The Conceptual Dilemma.......................................................................................................27 Theories of Social Movements ...............................................................................................33 Resource Mobilization Perspectives................................................................................34 The Political Process Model and Political Opportunity Structures.................................46 The Anti-Embargo Movement and U.S./Cuba Policy: A Framework for Analysis...............50 Hypothesis .......................................................................................................................50 Mobilizing Resources......................................................................................................51 The Enabling Environment..............................................................................................52 Methodology....................................................................................................................53 3 TAXONOMY OF ANTI-EMBARGO ORGANIZATIONS .................................................57 History and Goals ...................................................................................................................58 Financial Resources................................................................................................................69 Leadership, Human Resources and Organizational Structure ................................................74 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................84 4 STRATEGIES AND TACTICS OF THE ANTI-EMBARGO MOVEMENT ......................89 Conventional Strategies and Tactics.......................................................................................89 Confrontational Strategies and Tactics.................................................................................104 Solidarity Networks and Co-option......................................................................................108 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................115 5 5 SPEAKING TRUTHS TO POWER: CONTENTIOUS POLITICS AND CHALLENGING THE STATE............................................................................................116 Rallying Against the Embargo: From Ronald Reagan to George W. Bush .........................117 Reaction to the Torricelli Bill...............................................................................................123 Rejecting the Helms-Burton Law .........................................................................................126 Clamoring for the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act .........................129 Protesting the Reports of the Commission for Assistance to a Free Cuba ...........................132 The Elián González Affair and the Rise of Moderate Cuban Americans.............................139 Frustrations, Successes and Future Aspirations....................................................................145 6 RESOURCE MOBILIZATION: A RATIONAL DEPARTURE .......................................149 Olson’s Rational Model........................................................................................................150 Salisbury’s Exchange Theory...............................................................................................153 Tactical Framing and the New Social Movements...............................................................155 Solidarity Networks and Co-option......................................................................................160 Social Capital........................................................................................................................165 Commitment, Moral Incentives and Psychological Benefits ...............................................169 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................176 7 POLITICAL OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURES: SYSTEMIC, NATIONAL AND SUB- NATIONAL IMPULSES TO ANTI-EMBARGO ACTIVISM...........................................180 Systemic Forces and Expanding Opportunity Structures .....................................................182 The End of the Cold War and the Onslaught of Globalization .....................................183 Pope John Paul’s Visit to Cuba .....................................................................................186 State-level Impetus to Anti-Embargo Activities...................................................................189 Cuba’s Liberal Economic Reforms ...............................................................................189 Type of Government......................................................................................................192 Policy-Specific Opportunities .......................................................................................196 Societal Facilitators to Anti-Embargo Activism...................................................................200 The Countermovement and Power Alignment ..............................................................200 Shifting Dynamics within the Cuban American Community........................................206 The Countervailing Force.....................................................................................................209 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................209 8 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................216