From Foreign Relations to Foreign Policy: Transformation of the Kurdish de Facto State into an Independent Foreign Policy Actor Submitted by Hajar Bashir Kalari Sadoon to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Middle East Politics In June 2017 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other university. (Signature) 1 Abstract In 1991, following its defeat in the Second Gulf War and as a response to the international humanitarian protectionist umbrella provided to the three Kurdish- population governorates in Northern Iraq, the Government of Iraq (GOI) under Saddam Hussein centrally seceded from the area. The vacuum that ensued was soon filled by the leadership of the Iraqi Kurdistan Front (KNA) and soon a de facto state resurrected from the ashes of destruction besieging Iraqi Kurdistan for many decades. Hence, the precarious existence of what came to be known as the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI) in a highly challenging geopolitical environment and the strategic imperative of preserving the de facto independence of the entity forced the Kurdish leadership to give high priority to building foreign relations and pursuit of foreign policy. Foreign policy as a political activity is of paramount importance to all actors including sovereign states to preserve and promote their national interests. The practice of foreign policy, however, is particularly acute for de facto states. As internationally non-recognized entities, the international system of sovereign states is often skeptical if not hostile to engage in foreign relations with de facto states. Yet, projection of foreign policy and building foreign relations is extremely vital for the continued survival and consolidation of de facto states. By exploring the case of the KRI as a case of de facto statehood, this research argues that, mutatis mutandis, de facto states can pursue independent foreign policies. By identifying major transitions in the KRI, this thesis seeks to better explain 2 foreign policy determinants, objectives and instruments of implementation of foreign policies of the KRI. In doing so, this thesis further seeks to contribute to the analysis of de facto statehood in general, and to contribute to the study of the KRI as the case of de facto statehood in the Middle East region. 3 Acknowledgment This research could not have been completed without the generous support of numerous people, to whom I owe a great debt. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Gareth Stansfield, for his support throughout the process of writing this thesis. It has been an honour for me to work under the guidance and supervision of a world-renowned authority on the politics of Kurdistan, Iraq and the Middle East region. His guidance, insights and comments, as well as his dedication and openness, have been crucial in turning my thoughts and findings into this thesis. I would also like to thank Ms Zoe Humble for her consistent and friendly administrative assistance throughout this long and solitary journey. I want to express my deep appreciation to Mr. Fazel Merani, the Secretary of the Political Bureau of Kurdistan Democratic Party, for his fatherly and affectionate guardianship throughout my years of academic study. It would have been impossible for me to sustain the long years of study without his generous support and constant guidance. I also want to express my deep appreciation to my family who have provided emotional and practical support to me throughout these long difficult years of research. My mother, sisters and my only brother have always been constant sources of support. encouragement and inspiration. My wife has been uniquely supportive through her encouragement, patience and taking sole responsibility for our children throughout this course of study. 4 List of Acronyms ADM Assyrian Democratic Movement AKP Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi: Justice and Development Party (Turkey) AKSA Association of Kurdish Student abroad BCM Billion Cubic Meter COR Council of Representatives of Iraq CPA Coalition Provincial Authority DFR KRG Department of Foreign Relations ECHO European Community Humanitarian Organization ERS Electoral Reform Society FAO UN Food and Agriculture Organization FDI Foreign Direct Investment FGM Female Genital Mutilation GOI Government of Iraq IGC Iraqi Governing Council IIG Iraq Interim Government IKF Iraqi Kurdistan Front IMIK The Islamic Movement of Iraqi Kurdistan INA Iraqi National Accord 5 INC Iraqi National Congress INSI Iraqi National Intelligence Service IO International Organizations IOM International Office of Migration IRI International Republican Institute ISF Iraqi Security Forces KDP Kurdistan Democratic Party KDP-I Kurdistan Democratic Party-Iran KNA Kurdistan National Assembly KRG Kurdistan Regional Government KRI Kurdistan Region of Iraq KSSE Kurdish Student Society Europe OFFP Oil-For-Food Programme OIF Operation Iraqi Freedom OPC Operation Provide Comfort ORHA Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance PJAK Kurdistan Free Life Party- Iran PKK Kurdistan’s Workers Party PMF Peace Monitoring Force 6 PUK Patriotic Union of Kurdistan SCIRI Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq SOFA Status of Forces Agreement TCM Trillion Cubic Meter UAE United Arab Emirates UN United Nations UNAMI United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq UNOCHI UN Office of the Humanitarian Coordinator in Iraq UNSC United Nations Security Council USA United States of America USSR Union of Socialist Soviet Republics 7 Map Figure 1: Map of the Kurdish De Facto state in Iraq including the disputed areas with its parent state-Iraq. Source: http://pbs.twimg.com/media/CAjK-jgWEAADVaa.jpg 8 Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgment ................................................................................ 4 List of Acronyms ................................................................................ 5 Map ...................................................................................................... 8 Table of Contents ............................................................................... 9 Table of Figures ................................................................................ 12 1 Introduction ................................................................................. 13 1.1 A note on Terminology and the Use of the Term ‘De Facto State’ ........... 37 1.2 Literature Review ..................................................................................... 40 1.2.1 Literature Review on the Kurdistan Region of Iraq as a De Facto State 41 1.2.2 Literature on the Political Evolution and Development of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq .................................................................................................. 47 2 Theoretical Framework and Methodology ................................. 59 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 59 2.2 Defining the De Facto State: The Emergence, Operation and Policies .... 60 2.2.1 Application on the Kurdish De Facto State ...................................... 103 2.3 Foreign Policy Analysis: Theory and Practice ........................................ 109 2.4 Methodology ........................................................................................... 139 3 The Contextual and Historical Analysis of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq .............................................................................................. 144 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 144 3.2 The Human and Physical Geography of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq ... 146 9 3.3 History of Foreign Relations of Kurdish National Liberation Movement in Iraq, 1958-1991 ................................................................................................ 150 3.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 175 4 The First Decade of De Facto Existence: Foreign Relations of Survival ........................................................................................... 178 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 178 4.2 Emergence of the Kurdish De Facto State: The Second Gulf War, Kurdish Uprising, the Safe Haven, and Centrally Propelled Secession ......................... 180 4.3 De Facto Statehood: Establishment of the KRI, Initial Steps of Institution- Building and the Democratic Experiment ......................................................... 185 4.4 Turkey and the Kurdistan Region of Iraq: Complexities and Opportunities 201 4.5 Iraqi Kurdish Foreign Relations and Iraqi Opposition ............................. 223 4.6 The Descent into the Civil War: Implications for Foreign Relations ........ 234 4.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 241 5 The First Decade of De Facto Existence: Foreign Relations of Consolidation ................................................................................