- the role of Black Consciousness in Mbeki’s South Africa Masters Thesis by Peter Christian Kenworthy Roskilde University June 2007 Supervisors: Bodil Folke Frederiksen, International Development Studies and Kirsten Holst Petersen, English Bikoism or Mbekism – the role of Black Consciousness in Mbeki’s South Africa CONTENTS 1.1 Summary 3 1.2 Introduction 4 1.3 Structure of the thesis 5 1.4 Choice of theory 6 1.5 Objectives 8 2.1 Pre-colonial Africa 8 2.2 Colonialism 10 2.3 Colonialist discourse 11 2.3.1 Racism 12 2.3.2 Universalism 15 2.3.3 Culture 17 2.4 The material impact of colonialism 18 2.5 Neo-colonialism 19 3.1 Postcolonialism 20 3.1.1 Fanon 20 3.1.2 Said 22 3.1.3 Bhabha 22 3.1.4 Spivak 23 3.2 Criticism of postcolonialism 23 4.1 South African history 25 4.1.1 South Africa before apartheid 25 4.1.2 Similarities to other African countries 26 4.1.3 Apartheid 27 4.1.4 The liberation struggle before Soweto 29 4.1.5 Soweto 32 4.1.6 Post-Soweto 33 4.1.7 Post-1994 36 4.1.8 The present 38 4.2 Is South Africa neo-colonial? 39 5.1 Black Consciousness 40 5.1.1 History 40 5.1.2 Steve Biko 45 5.1.3 Influences upon Black Consciousness 46 5.1.4 Definition of Black Consciousness 49 5.1.5 The South African “liberal” 51 5.1.6 Blackness and whiteness 53 5.1.7 Goals 56 5.1.8 Influence 58 5.1.9 Criticism 61 5.1.10 Relevance today 63 1 Bikoism or Mbekism – the role of Black Consciousness in Mbeki’s South Africa 6.1 Thabo Mbeki’s South Africa 65 6.2 Short biography of Thabo Mbeki 66 6.2.1 Style of leadership and democratic credentials 66 6.3 Politics and ideology 71 6.3.1 African renaissance 72 6.3.2 Economic liberalism 74 6.3.3 Black Economic Empowerment 78 6.3.4 AIDS 81 6.3.5 Mugabe 83 6.3.6 Non-racialism 86 6.4 The future 91 7.1 Conclusion 93 8.1 References 96 8.2 Speeches, lectures and interviews 102 8.3 Internet addresses 103 2 Bikoism or Mbekism – the role of Black Consciousness in Mbeki’s South Africa 1.1 Summary A combination of European administrators, an indigenous elite and colonialist discourse upheld colonial rule. The colonialist discourse that engulfed all colonies was extensive, drawing on both non-cultural explanations such as racism, and cultural such as Eurocentric universalism to justify colonialism. Resistance to colonialism therefore required an imaginative reconstruction and a transcendence of colonial discourse as well as resistance to its more physical and material legacies, also because the material and non-material elements of colonialism are mutually constitutive and interconnected. As Postcolonial theory further acknowledges, the legacy of colonialist discourse continued to influence the perceptions and self-image of both coloniser and colonised after actual colonialism had ended. Although South Africa’s colonial period was in a sense unique because of the “internal” nature of its colonisation, until the late forties and even into the sixties the nature of exploitation of its indigenous population was relatively unexceptional compared to that of other African countries and colonies elsewhere. The combination of the decolonisation of most other colonies in the late fifties and sixties and the increasingly rigid nature of apartheid laws in South Africa changed this. Black Consciousness was a response to the increasingly rigid nature of apartheid that according to Biko had caused the black1 defeatism, lack of pride and dependency upon white liberals that was evident in the lack of black liberation activity inside South Africa in the late sixties. Whereas Biko’s goal was a non-racial society, his solution was two-tiered, blacks having first to regain pride and confidence in themselves by acts of self-sufficiency, this being a pre-condition for a successful second tier, that of actual liberation and material and political improvements. After the elimination of apartheid, Biko’s Black Consciousness envisaged a non-racial society and an integration that fused the lifestyles of the various groups. The ANC of Thabo Mbeki that achieved actual political power after the dismantling of apartheid saw things the other way round, striving to end apartheid whilst giving little thought to racialism until well into the nineties. Mbeki’s ANC thereby ended up with an “over- racialised” view of South Africa, advocating an Africanism or Afrocentric universalism and group-orientated multiculturalism that has seen a resurgence of exclusionism. Additionally, 1 BC used the term “black” as a non-essentialist construction synonymous with “the oppressed” (Africans, Coloureds and Indians). Other uses of black are, and have been, prevalent, even in South Africa where many whites used “black” as synonymous with “African”. I will use “black” in the way intended by Black Consciousness. 3 Bikoism or Mbekism – the role of Black Consciousness in Mbeki’s South Africa Mbeki combined an individualistic economic liberalism with that of centralist, top-down style leadership that was opposed to the communalistic mixed economy, bottom-up approach of Black Consciousness. In reality the psychological aspects are interconnected with the political and economic. Only an integral solution that attempts to deal with all aspects and include some of the insights of both Bikoism and Mbekism will consequently be successful. Having accepted this, Biko seemingly understood the necessity of an integral solution better than Mbeki because of what he saw as the interconnectedness of psychological matters, social change and liberation. 1.2 Introduction South Africa’s first proper democratic elections in 1994 were seen as a watershed in the history of the country. Centuries of colonialism and decades of apartheid were to be transformed into a truly democratic and non-racial society of equals. Separate development was to be replaced by that of a collective development without reference to race. A little over a decade later the change that was hoped for by the majority who were disadvantaged under apartheid has not come about, the many post-1994 improvements notwithstanding. Whilst a relatively small black middle class has materialised, most blacks are as poor as under apartheid and black and white socialising is no more frequent than before. There are obvious reasons for this lack of equality and integration. Addressing the material concerns of the disadvantaged was and is a gruelling task, made worse by the fact that the coffers that the African National Congress (ANC) inherited were not bulging as expected, but virtually emptied by the apartheid regime’s increasingly desperate attempts to keep the apartheid state afloat. Additionally, the educational standards of many young blacks were hampered by the deliberately substandard Bantu-education and the subsequent refusal by many blacks to attend school and be educated to become second-rate citizens. The question is consequently not whether or not the task of bringing about a non-racial South Africa is daunting, but what the best way of achieving it is. In other words, can the development that South Africa has made since 1994 be improved upon by employing another outlook than that of the present South African government. In the seventies, the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) of Steve Biko had a different view of how to bring about true liberation. The movement saw dealing with the psychological aspects of apartheid such as inferiority complexes as vital, initially by way of black introspection; as well as promoting 4 Bikoism or Mbekism – the role of Black Consciousness in Mbeki’s South Africa equally distributed wealth and a people-centred leadership. The detention, banning, imprisonment and murder of the majority of its leaders stifled the impact of the movement, and the momentum of the liberation movement returned to the non-racialist ideology of the ANC and United Democratic Front (UDF) in the eighties. In the post-apartheid era, Mandela’s reconciliatory approach was replaced by Mbeki’s focus on economic remedies, and programmes such as that of Black Economic Empowerment revealed an increasing willingness to devise methods to specifically deal with the disadvantaged black community. In additionally employing an increasingly Africanist rhetoric, Mbeki would seem to concede that non-racialism has not succeeded in South Africa today. But are his somewhat blurred and contradictory references to the concepts of “African” and “black”, seen as inclusive in some instances and exclusive in others, helpful in attaining a non-racial society that was the goal of the ANC as well as that of the BCM? An important question is thus whether Mbekism deals adequately with the legacy of apartheid or if Black Consciousness can provide better or complementary solutions to some or all of these problems. The answering of this question that is attempted in this thesis is not only relevant to a narrow South African context, but also globally, as South Africa can be seen as an embodiment of the North-South conflict. Whether South Africa can solve its problems of race relations, economic differentiation or other matters discussed in this thesis is consequently of interest at the individual level (because of the pervasiveness of colonial discourse and the complexes that this produces), the nation level (because most other countries are multi-ethnic and multi-cultural) as well as at the international level (because of the interdependence of contemporary international society). If post-apartheid South Africa can succeed in transforming itself into an inclusive society of equals it can teach all societies a lesson by “provid[ing] evidence for the fact that heterogeneity does not preclude harmony” (Zegeye: 342).