National Louis University Digital Commons@NLU Dissertations 6-2021 A Psychological Perspective on Police Brutality: Current Statistics, Characteristics, and Trends Regarding Excessive Use of Force Ashley Salter National Louis University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.nl.edu/diss Part of the Clinical Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Salter, Ashley, "A Psychological Perspective on Police Brutality: Current Statistics, Characteristics, and Trends Regarding Excessive Use of Force" (2021). Dissertations. 571. https://digitalcommons.nl.edu/diss/571 This Dissertation - Public Access is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons@NLU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons@NLU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A Psychological Perspective on Police Brutality: Current Statistics, Characteristics, and Trends Regarding Excessive Use of Force Ashley Salter, MA Florida School of Professional Psychology at National Louis University Gary Howell, Psy.D. Chair Patricia Dixon, Psy.D. Member A Clinical Research Project submitted to the Faculty of the Florida School of Professional Psychology at National Louis University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Psychology in Clinical Psychology. Tampa, Florida April, 2021 The Doctorate Program in Clinical Psychology Florida School of Professional Psychology at National Louis University CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL ___________________________ Clinical Research Project ___________________________ This is to certify that the Clinical Research Project of Ashley Nicole Salter has been approved by the CRP Committee on April 16, 2021 as satisfactory for the CRP requirement for the Doctorate of Psychology degree with a major in Clinical Psychology Examining Committee: ________________________________________ Committee Chair: Gary Howell, Psy.D. ________________________________________ Member: Patricia Dixon, Psy.D. Abstract The purpose of this literature review was to utilize a psychological perspective on police brutality to identify current statistics, characteristics, and trends concerning excessive use of force. There were four fundamental goals of this literature review: (a) examine current statistics, characteristics, and trends regarding excessive use of force by law enforcement officers; (b) examine which populations are most likely to suffer from excessive use of force; (c) examine current methods in training law enforcement officers; and (d) propose a new model for training law enforcement officers. Also included is a discussion of a proposed idea for the training of police officers. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the limitations of this literature review, areas for future research, and a brief summary. Major findings of this literature review found that police brutality has been a part of the United States since the inception of law enforcement. Furthermore, research has shown that ethnic/racial minorities, individuals with mental health issues, and members of the LGBTQ+ communities are at a significantly higher risk of experiencing excessive use of force and being killed by law enforcement officers. Finally, a brief proposed model for law enforcement training and reform is presented. A PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON POLICE BRUTALITY: CURRENT STATISTICS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND TRENDS REGARDING EXCESSIVE USE OF FORCE Copyright ©2021 Ashley N. Salter, MA All rights reserved ii DEDICATION First and foremost, I want to dedicate my dissertation to my parents, Holly Yvonne Salter and Christopher Eric Salter. Without both of you, I would not be where I am today. You provided me with the love, opportunity, and support to obtain this life-long goal of mine, so thank you for that! I know my choice to be a career student has sometimes been a pain in your ass, but we did it! I love you both dearly and cannot thank you enough. Last but not least, I would like to also dedicate my dissertation to Joshua Meeks for all of the coffee and patience you have given me throughout this entire process. It is not lost on me the sacrifices you have made to be here. Thank you for all of your support and love. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wanted to take this time and space to acknowledge my dissertation committee members: Dr. Gary Howell and Dr. Patricia Dixon. With the utmost sincerity, I want to thank you both for agreeing to take on my dissertation topic and me. Without either of you and your patience with me, this would not have been possible. Additionally, I also want to acknowledge the Florida School of Professional Psychology at National Louis University. Without FSPP, I would not have been able to complete my doctoral degree or dissertation. When my school in Georgia closed down, FSPP was there to take me in. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge my Aunt Patty and Uncle Glenn. Thank you for all of your support and help throughout my educational journey. Further, I would also like to acknowledge a dear friend of mine, who may not have actually thrown crunch bars at me but helped me through this painful and tedious process. Thank you! iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ i Copyright ........................................................................................................................................ ii Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................v CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY ........................................................................ 1 Historical Timeline of Policing and Police Brutality .......................................................... 3 The 1600s and 1700s .............................................................................................. 3 The 1800s ................................................................................................................ 3 The 1900s ................................................................................................................ 4 The 2000s ................................................................................................................ 5 Deinstitutionalization and Encounters with Police ............................................................. 6 Purpose of Literature Review ............................................................................................. 9 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 9 Research Procedure ........................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER II: EXAMINING REALITIES AND TRENDS FOR EXCESSIVE USE OF FORCE .......................................................................................................................................... 11 Accountability ................................................................................................................... 14 Armed vs. Unarmed .......................................................................................................... 15 African Americans ................................................................................................ 16 Hispanics and Latinos ........................................................................................... 17 Whites ................................................................................................................... 17 Populations Most Affected ............................................................................................... 18 v African Americans ................................................................................................ 23 LGBTQ+ Community ........................................................................................... 26 Mental Health........................................................................................................ 28 CHAPTER III: CHARACTERISTICS OF OFFICERS USING EXCESSIVE FORCE ............. 34 Police Culture.................................................................................................................... 34 Gender Differences ............................................................................................... 37 Police Misconduct and the Code of Silence ......................................................... 38 Organizational Culture and Characteristics ...................................................................... 38 Officer Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 42 Stress ..................................................................................................................... 44 Stereotypes and Dehumanization .......................................................................... 47 CHAPTER IV: CURRENT METHODS IN POLICE OFFICER TRAINING AND USE OF FORCE PROCEDURES ..............................................................................................................