University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/60366 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. PhD Thesis THE VIABILITY OF APPLYING ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION PROCESSES IN THE NIGER DELTA CONFLICT Ofinjite Joy Ogaji This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Law at the School of Law, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom. Supervisor: William O’Brian Associate Professor of Law School of Law University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom September 2013 Table of Contents Abstract As the resource related conflict in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria escalates at a furious pace, it is becoming clear that traditional means of dispute resolution (such as litigation and violence) are no longer applicable. Research has also shown that no method of dispute resolution can be efficient, equitable and administratively practicable without the collective effort of all parties involved; individuals, institutions and non-governmental organizations need to work together to develop a countrywide ability to design an effective conflict resolution system. While there is a perceived need for a viable dispute resolution process, to date, no concerted effort has been made to harness relevant experiences and build a network of practitioners skilled in the management of such conflicts. The emerging Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) methods (which do not involve litigation) may offer opportunities to resolve disputes in the Niger Delta region more effectively than litigation-based means. In view of this, this research assesses indigenous dispute resolution processes in terms of their potential applicability as alternative dispute resolution processes for the Niger Delta conflict. The review also provides insights into the criteria used to support decision making as it relates to choosing the most appropriate dispute resolution process. To do this, this research advocates a hybrid model (an integration of both customary indigenous process and westernised mediation process). The choice of a hybrid model is predicated on the assumption that the Niger Delta is a hub for investors, where both locals (indigenes) and outsiders (foreigners) interact and relate together in pursuit of a common goal. Experience at the grass roots level in one community may also provide guidance for conflict resolution at similar levels in other communities. Keywords: Conflict, Niger Delta, Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), Western, Indigenous, Hybrid, Mediation. Joy Ogaji – PhD Thesis Page iii Table of Contents Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... iv Table of Tables ..................................................................................................................................... xii Table of Figures ................................................................................................................................... xiii Table of Abbreviations / Acronyms ..................................................................................................... xiv Table of Cases ...................................................................................................................................... xvi Declaration ........................................................................................................................................... xvii Dedication ........................................................................................................................................... xviii Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................ xix Chapter 1 : Introduction/Background ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The Niger Delta Conflict ............................................................................................... 2 1.2 Central Research Argument .......................................................................................... 4 1.3 Research Aim and Objectives ....................................................................................... 5 1.4 Scope of the Research. .................................................................................................. 5 1.5 The Research Challenge ................................................................................................ 6 1.6 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................. 7 1.7 Relevance of this Research in the Oil and Gas Sector ................................................. 7 1.8 Contribution to ADR Knowledge ................................................................................. 8 1.9 Thesis Layout ................................................................................................................ 8 Chapter 2 : Historical Background of the Conflict. .............................................................................. 11 2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 11 2.1 A Historical Overview ................................................................................................ 11 2.1.1 The Period of Antiquity/ Pre‐colonial .............................................................. 13 2.1.2 The Period of the Transatlantic Trade 1472 – 1807 ....................................... 14 2.1.3 The Era of Palm Oil Trade, 1807 ‐ 1957 ........................................................... 14 2.1.4 The Period of Imperialism 1880‐1960 ............................................................. 15 Joy Ogaji – PhD Thesis Page iv Table of Contents 2.1.5 Fall of the Niger Delta Region(1906‐1918) ...................................................... 17 2.1.6 The Period of Independence ............................................................................. 21 2.2 The Role of History in the Niger Delta conflict .......................................................... 25 2.3 Colonialism, the Genesis of the Niger Delta Conflict: ............................................... 27 2.4 Niger Delta Struggle: A Resource Based Conflict? .................................................... 32 2.4.1. Impact of Oil industries....................................................................................... 37 2.4.2 Resource Control: A Clamour for Equitable Distribution ............................... 40 2.4.3 The Various Revenue Sharing Methods as a Catalyst for Conflict .................. 41 2.4.3.1 Land Mass and Terrain...................................................................... 42 2.4.3 .2 Population Density ........................................................................... 43 2.4.3.3 Internal Revenue Generation............................................................. 43 2.4.3.4 Derivation .......................................................................................... 43 2.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 45 Chapter 3 : Review/Theoretical Framework To The Conflict. ............................................................. 47 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 47 3.2 Historical Review of Conflict Theories ...................................................................... 47 3.3 Theoretical Review ..................................................................................................... 51 3.4 The Applicability Of The Theories To The Niger Delta Conflict. .............................. 58 3.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 62 Chapter 4: Evaluating Viable Alternative Models: The Diagnosis Phase ............................................ 64 4.0. Introduction: .............................................................................................................. 64 4.1. Extant Approaches In The Niger Delta Conflict ........................................................ 66 4.1.1 Strategies Adopted by Host Communities ........................................................... 66 4.1.2 Strategies Adopted by Multinational Oil Companies. ...................................... 69 4.1.3 Strategies Adopted by the Nigerian government. ................................................ 73 4.1.3.1 Military Tactics ................................................................................. 74 4.1.3.2 The Viability of Probes/Panels of Enquiry ....................................... 76 4.1.4 The Viability of Litigation in the Niger Delta Conflict...................................... 78