i ASSESSMENT OF STATES’ RESPONSE TO THE SEPTEMBER 11, 2001TERROR ATTACK IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE NIGERIAN PERSPECTIVE BY EMEKA C. ADIBE REG NO: PG/Ph.D/13/66801 UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA FACULTY OF LAW DEPARMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE AUGUST, 2018 ii TITLE PAGE ASSESSMENT OF STATES’ RESPONSETO THE SEPTEMBER 11, 2001TERROR ATTACK IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE NIGERIAN PERSPECTIVE BY EMEKA C. ADIBE REG. NO: PG/Ph.D/13/66801 SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LAW IN THE DEPARMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE, FACULTY OF LAW, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA SUPERVISOR: PROF JOY NGOZI EZEILO (OON) AUGUST, 2018 iii CERTIFICATION This is to certify that this research was carried out by Emeka C. Adibe, a post graduate student in Department of International law and Jurisprudence with registration number PG/Ph.D/13/66801. This work is original and has not been submitted in part or full for the award of any degree in this or any other institution. ---------------------------------- ------------------------------- ADIBE, Emeka C. Date (Student) --------------------------------- ------------------------------- Prof. Joy Ngozi Ezeilo (OON) Date (Supervisor) ------------------------------- ------------------------------- Dr. Emmanuel Onyeabor Date (Head of Department) ------------------------------------- ------------------------------- Prof. Joy Ngozi Ezeilo (OON) Date (Dean, Faculty of Law) iv DEDICATION To all Victims of Terrorism all over the World. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Gratitude is owned to God in and out of season and especially on the completion of such a project as this, bearing in mind that a Ph.D. research is a preserve of only those privileged by God who alone makes it possible by his gift of good health, perseverance and analytic skills. Again I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Prof. Joy Ezeilo (OON) for the continuous support of my Ph.D. study and related research, for her patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. Her guidance assisted immensely to the success and timely writing and completion of this research. I could not have imagined having a better and very understanding advisor and mentor for my Ph.D. work. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the rest of the academic staff of Law Faculty of University of Nigeria especially Prof. Chukwunonso Okafo who provided the initial academic advice at the inception of this work and to the rest of the staff for their untiring support and encouragement during the course of this research work. I also owe and acknowledge the assistance of my immediate family and numerous friends especially Mrs Jane Adibe- my mother, Dr & Mrs Basil Nwankwo, Rev. Fr (Dr) Steve Ziga Dedua and Mrs Tina Obiakor who have contributed in many varied ways to see to the success of this research through their moral, financial and logistics support. I cannot forget the subtle contribution of my students at the Law faculty of University of Nigeria to the success of this work, as they continued to provide me with subjects for deep thinking and analysis leading to more profound analysis of the subject matter of this research. Emeka Adibe vi TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................................. ii CERTIFICATION ....................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. vi TABLE OF CASES ...................................................................................................... ix TABLE OF STATUTES, RESOLUTIONS AND CONVENTIONS ........................... x TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................... xiii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. xv CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................... 5 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................ 11 1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study ....................................................................... 11 1.5 Research Methodology ....................................................................................... 13 1.6 Significance of the Study ................................................................................... 14 1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Study ..................................................................... 16 CHAPTER TWO: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON TERRORISM AND COUNTER-TERRORISM FRAMEWORKS ............................................................. 18 2.1 Defining Factors of Post 9/11 Era ...................................................................... 18 2.2 The Historical and Theoretical Evolution of International Terrorism ............... 30 2.3 Terrorism According to Kinds ........................................................................... 41 2.4 Terrorism: The Problem of Definition ............................................................... 45 2.5 Nature of Terrorism ............................................................................................ 51 2.6 Definition of Terrorism ...................................................................................... 58 2.6.1 Mens Rea of Terrorism (Subjective Element) ............................................. 68 2.7 Typologies of Terrorism..................................................................................... 74 2.8 Counter Terrorism Response Frameworks ......................................................... 83 2.8.1 Counter Terrorism and Use of Force in International Relations ................. 83 2.8.2 Terrorism as Armed Attack ......................................................................... 90 2.8.3 Combating Terrorism and International Humanitarian Law ....................... 93 2.8.4 Counter-Terrorism and Human Rights Regime ......................................... 100 2.9 Major Terrorist Networks in the Post 9/11 Era ................................................ 105 vii 2.9.1The al Qaeda ............................................................................................... 105 2.9.2 Boko Haram ............................................................................................... 109 2.9.3 Al Shabaab ................................................................................................. 111 2.9.4 Islamic State in Iraq and Levant (ISIL) or ISIS ......................................... 113 CHAPTER THREE: COUNTER TERRORISM INITIATIVES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW AND COUNTER TERRORISM RESPONSE MODELS .................................................................................................................................... 117 3.1 International Legislative Frameworks .............................................................. 117 3.1.1 The United Nations Counter Terrorism Initiatives .................................... 118 3.1.2 UN Counter Terrorism Conventions ......................................................... 119 3.2 Regional Initiatives- European Union (EU), African Union (AU), ECOWAS, Arab League, Organisation of American States (OAS) ......................................... 134 3.2.1 European Union (EU) ................................................................................ 135 3.3 African Union (AU) ......................................................................................... 140 3.4 Arab League ..................................................................................................... 143 3.5 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) ............................ 144 3.6 Organisation of American States (OAS) .......................................................... 146 3.7 The Problem of Policing and Prosecution of Terrorists ................................... 147 3.8 Counter-Terrorism Response Models .............................................................. 156 3.8.1 The Rule of Law Model ............................................................................. 156 3.8.2 The War Model: Between National Security and Liberty ......................... 167 3.8.3 Human Rights/International Humanitarian Law Response Model ............ 200 3.8.4 Anti- immigration Model- Donald Trump Alternative.............................. 216 3.8.5 Negotiation Model (ADR) ......................................................................... 223 CHAPTER FOUR: TERRORISM AND THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE ............ 230 4.1 Historical Dimension and Causes of Terrorism in Nigeria .............................. 230 4.2 Impact of Terrorism in Nigeria ........................................................................ 243 4.3 A Review of Nigerian Terrorism Prevention Regime and Counter Terrorism Measures................................................................................................................