Environmental Toxicology, Third Edition Sigmund F. Zakrzewski OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY THIRD EDITION This page intentionally left blank ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY THIRD EDITION Sigmund F. Zakrzewski 1 2002 3 Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota´ Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris Sa˜o Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Copyright # 2002 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Zakrzewski, Sigmund F., 1919– Environmental toxicology / Sigmund F. Zakrzewski.—3rd ed. p. cm. Rev. ed. of: Principles of environmental toxicology. 2nd ed. 1997. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-19-514811-8 1. Environmental toxicology. I. Zakrzewski, Sigmund F., 1919– Principles of environmental toxicology. II. Title. RA1226 .Z35 2001 0 615.9 02—dc21 2001034606 987654321 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper Preface to the Third Edition This book, Environmental Toxicology, is essentially the third, updated and improved version of the highly successful second edition of Principles of Environmental Toxicology. Basically the same outlay of chapters and the way of presentation were maintained; however, considerable changes and improvement were incorporated into this edition. Most changes involved updating of statistical information (when available), incorporation of new or revised reports on environment and health, and updating information on international meetings and conferences, such as Rio Plus Five in Chapter 1, Kyoto Conference in Chapter 10, Cairo Plus Five in Chapter 14, and POP Treaty in Chapter 15. A major change was the introduction of a new chapter (Chapter 6) on endocrine disrupters. The specific changes and additions were: In Chapter 5, ‘‘Chemical Carcinogenesis and Mutagenesis,’’ a section was added on oncogenes and tumor suppressors. In Chapter 7, ‘‘Risk Assessment,’’ two sections were added; one on risk assessment of endocrine disrupters and the other one on the principle of precautionary action. In Chapter 9, ‘‘Air Pollution,’’ the section on airborne particles was extended to include most recent study on toxicity of particles. The section on trends and present status of air quality was rewritten to incorporate new statistical data and a most recent report by the American Lung Association on ground level ozone in American cities and its health implications. At the end of Chapter 10, ‘‘Pollution of the Atmosphere,’’ a section was added on the effects of atmospheric changes on human health. vi Preface to the Third Edition In Chapter 11, ‘‘Water and Land Pollution,’’ three new sections were added: on genetically modified crops, on Pfiesteria pesticida in American coastal waters and on zebra mussel in the Great Lakes. In Chapter 14, ‘‘Population, Environment, and Women’s Issues,’’ the data on world hunger and food availability were rewritten to conform with latest available information. For the first time in this series of books, certain information was obtained from reliable sources, such as Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), World Health Organization (WHO), American Lung Association (ALA), and so on, on the Internet. In such cases the Internet address providing the information is given in the references, together with the name of agency or institution providing the information. Preface to the Second Edition This edition of Principles of Environmental Toxicology is essentially pat- terned on the first edition, but many changes have been introduced. While the first edition was in circulation, several reviews of the book appeared in different journals. Although the reviews were basically favorable, certain shortcomings and omissions were pointed out. I am indebted to the reviewers, and I took their comments into consideration while preparing this edition. Thus, for instance, a section on indoor air pollution was added in Chapter 8, and the scope of the book was widened beyond direct concern with human toxicity. A section on wetlands and estuaries, including a description of the plight of the Chesapeake Bay, was added in Chapter 10. A new chapter, ‘‘Population, Environment, and Women’s Issues,’’ was added. The original Chapter 6, on air pollution, was split into two chapters: Chapter 8, on the problems of urban and industrial air pollution, and Chapter 9, on the despoilment of the earth’s atmosphere, meaning stratospheric ozone depletion and global warming. This change allowed expansion of the scope of both areas. At the suggestion of the reviewer of this manuscript, the sequence of the chapters was changed somewhat, and all but one of the appendices were moved into the appropriate chapters. The chapter on occupational toxicol- ogy (Chapter 10 in the first edition) was moved after Chapter 6 (‘‘Risk Assessment’’). Other changes involved updating the information contained in the first edition. Two world events have taken place since the press time of the first edition: the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, in Rio de Janeiro, and the United Nations Conference on Population and Development, in Cairo. Brief descriptions of the proceedings and accom- viii Preface to the Second Edition plishments of these conferences are included in Chapters 1 and 13, respec- tively. Another major event was the publication by the Environmental Protection Agency (in a preliminary report), as well as by independent scien- tists, of new findings on the toxicity and environmental impact of chlori- nated hydrocarbons. This newest information was also added. Because of the discovery that polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins affect the human immune system at low doses—below the doses that produce a carcinogenic effect—the basic functioning of the immune system was included in Chapter 7. Another change was the inclusion in Chapter 14 of a section that briefly describes some important environmental acts and international treaties pro- tecting marine life. Despite these changes, this book is primarily a toxicology, and not an ecology, text. Thus, certain important areas of interest to environmentalists have been omitted. To remedy these shortcomings, a list of subjects for student research and seminars has been included, as in the previous edition. The book was originally prepared as a text for a one-semester introductory three-credit course in environmental toxicology. However, with the expan- sion of the scope of the topics in the second edition, it may be necessary to upgrade the course to four or five credits to thoroughly cover the book’s content. Certain sections of this new edition were taken, with some modifications and with permission, from my book People, Health, and Environment (1). Reference 1. Zakrzewski, S. F. People, Health, and Environment; SFZ Publishing: Amherst, NY, 1994. Preface Toxicology is traditionally defined as the study of the harmful effects of drugs, chemicals, and chemical mixtures on living organisms. Within the past two decades the environmental branch of toxicology has assumed a wider meaning. The survival of individuals and the human race alike is the ultimate goal of this area of study. However, the survival of humanity depends on the survival of other species (plants and animals alike); on the availability of clean water, air, and soil; and on the availability of energy. Moreover, although preservation of our local and regional environment is vital to our survival, global problems such as the increasing CO2 content in the atmosphere and depletion of stratospheric ozone are also critical. Use of poisons is as old as the human race. For centuries, primitive people applied toxic plant extracts to poison their arrows for hunting and warfare. In our civilization, poisons have been studied and used for political, finan- cial, or marital advantages. Doull and Bruce covered this subject in more detail in the introductory chapter of Cassarett and Doull’s Toxicology (1). The credit for elevating toxicology to a true science goes to a Spanish physician, Mattieu Joseph Benaventura Orfila (1787–1853), who first described the correlation between the persistence of chemicals in the body and their physiological effect. He also developed analytical testing methods to detect the presence of toxins in the body and devised certain antidotal therapies. Contemporary toxicology has evolved into a study with three branches: . Clinical toxicology is concerned with the effect of drugs on human patients. Forensic toxicology is concerned with the detection, for judicial purposes, of the unlawful use of toxic agents. x Preface . Environmental toxicology is concerned with the effects of toxins, whether purposely applied (such as pesticides) or derived from industrial processes, on health and the environment. Environmental toxicology is a multidisciplinary science involving many widely diverse areas of study such as . chemistry, the characterization of toxins; . pharmacology, the mode of entry and distribution of toxins in the body; . biochemistry, the metabolism