Tracing Change in Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting through Social Networks: An Intersectional Analysis of the Influence of Gender, Generation, Status, and Structural Inequality February 2020 Tracing Change in Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting through Social Networks: An Intersectional Analysis of the Influence of Gender, Generation, Status, and Structural Inequality Amadou Moreau1 (PI) Global Research and Advocacy Group Bettina Shell-Duncan2 (Co-PI) University of Washington Team Members Cherif Mouhamed Dai Diallo1 Holly Nicole Kandel1 Holly Shakya3 Modou Dem1 Sarah Smith1,2 Olivia Soule1 1 Global Research and Advocacy Group (GRAG), Senegal 2 University of Washington, Seattle 3 University of California, San Diego FEBRUARY 2020 i Evidence to End FGM/C: Research to Help Girls and Women Thrive generates evidence to inform and influence investments, policies, and programmes for ending female genital mutilation/cutting in different contexts. Evidence to End FGM/C is led by the Population Council, Nairobi in partnership with the Africa Coordinating Centre for the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (ACCAF), Kenya; the Global Research and Advocacy Group (GRAG), Senegal; Population Council, Nigeria; Population Council, Egypt; Population Council, Ethiopia; MannionDaniels, Ltd. (MD); Population Reference Bureau (PRB); University of California, San Diego (Dr. Gerry Mackie); and University of Washington, Seattle (Prof. Bettina Shell-Duncan). The Population Council confronts critical health and development issues— from stopping the spread of HIV to improving reproductive health and ensuring that young people lead full and productive lives. Through biomedical, social science, and public health research in 50 countries, we work with our partners to deliver solutions that lead to more effective policies, programmes, and technologies that improve lives around the world. Established in 1952 and headquartered in New York, the Council is a nongovernmental, nonprofit organisation governed by an international board of trustees. www.popcouncil.org Global Research and Advocacy Group (GRAG) strives to discover possibilities for every woman, child, and vulnerable population as a whole, through high standard research and training. Our vision is to harness the power of research innovation, and become a leading organisation dedicated to advancing the evidence base for behaviour change that can be used to inform programmes or policies throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. www.globalresearchandadvocacygroup.org The University of Washington is one of the world’s preeminent public universities. Our impact on individuals, our region, and the world is profound —whether we are launching young people into a boundless future or confronting the grand challenges of our time through undaunted research and scholarship. We turn ideas into impact and transform lives and our world. www.washington.edu Suggested Citation: Moreau A. and Shell-Duncan B. 2020. “Tracing Change in Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting through Social Networks: An Intersectional Analysis of the Influence of Gender, Generation, Status, and Structural Inequality.” Evidence to End FGM/C: Research to Help Girls and Women Thrive. New York: Population Council. This report represents the opinions of the authors and is the product of professional research. The report has been peer reviewed. For more information, contact the lead authors [[email protected]] and [[email protected]]. Please address any inquiries about the Evidence to End FGM/C programme consortium to: Dr Jacinta Muteshi, Project Director, [email protected] Funded by: This document is an output from a programme funded by UK Aid from the UK government for the benefit of developing countries. However, the views expressed and information contained in it are not necessarily those of, or endorsed by the UK government, which can accept no responsibility for such views or information or for any reliance placed on them. ii Table of Contents List of Acronyms .............................................................................................................................. iv Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... v Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ vi Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 9 Gender Norms, Feminisms, and Shifting Meanings of “Patriarchy” ............................................. 9 Social Norms Theory ................................................................................................................... 11 Context of the Study ...................................................................................................................... 14 Study Population ......................................................................................................................... 17 Objectives and Research Questions ........................................................................................... 18 Research questions ..................................................................................................................... 18 Methods.......................................................................................................................................... 19 Subject Recruitment .................................................................................................................... 19 Data Collection Instruments, Field Team Training and Pre-Testing ........................................... 19 Data Collection Protocols ............................................................................................................ 20 Data analysis ............................................................................................................................... 20 Ethical considerations ................................................................................................................. 22 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 22 FGM/C as a Practice in Flux: “New Era, New Behaviour, New Way of Life” ............................. 22 Network Processes ..................................................................................................................... 24 Factors Promoting or Challenging the Practise of FGM/C ......................................................... 26 Embodiment of feminine virtue ................................................................................................. 26 Pressure to conform ................................................................................................................. 28 Marriageability .......................................................................................................................... 30 Responses to the law banning FGM/C .................................................................................... 32 Health risks ............................................................................................................................... 34 An emerging norm: Male preference for an uncut marital partner .......................................... 35 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 36 Network Composition .................................................................................................................. 38 Patterns of Influence and Differential Power over Decision making on FGM/C ......................... 45 Generation: The power of older women over younger women ............................................... 48 The role of gender in structuring hierarchies of power and authority ...................................... 53 Leaders: Shifting influence ...................................................................................................... 58 Structural inequalities ............................................................................................................... 59 Intersecting axes of power and influence over FGM/C ............................................................ 61 Limitations ...................................................................................................................................... 64 Discussion and Summary .............................................................................................................. 65 Implications for Policy/Programmes/Research .............................................................................. 66 References ..................................................................................................................................... 68 Appendix A: Interview Guidelines for Key Informant Interviews and Focus Group Discussions . 73 iii List of Acronyms ASBEF Association Sénégalaise pour le Bien-Etre Familial CNERS Comité National d’Ethique pour la Recherche en Santé COFESEPRAT National Committee for the Abandonment of Harmful Practices Affecting Women and Children DHS Demographic Health Survey DM Decisionmakers ENDA-ACAS Environmental Development Action—Action in Casamance FGD Focus Group Discussion FGM/C Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting GRAG Global Research