Magub, Alexandra (2018) Political and Religious Ideologies on Parthian Coins of the 2nd‐1st Centuries BC. PhD thesis. SOAS University of London. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/30283 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. 1 Political and Religious Ideologies on Parthian Coins of the 2nd-1st Centuries BC ALEXANDRA MAGUB Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2018 Department of Religions and Philosophies, School of History, Religions and Philosophies SOAS, University of London 3 Brief Abstract This thesis examines a key period of change in Parthian coinage, as the rebellious Parthian satrapy transitioned first from a nomadic to sedentary kingdom in the second half of the 3rd century BC, and then into a great empire during the 2nd-early 1st century BC. The research will focus on the iconography and inscriptions that were employed on the coinage in order to demonstrate how Parthian authorities used these objects to convey political and religious ideologies to a diverse audience. The Parthian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent under the Parthian king Mithradates II (c. 121-91 BC), stretching from Bactria (modern northern Afghanistan) in the east to the River Euphrates (modern Iraq) in the west. Various kingdoms from this vast landscape were brought under Parthian control. The coinage issued by the ruling kings was an effective means of propagating their ideologies on royal authority and divine legitimacy. The numismatic material is the only continuous source of primary evidence that has survived the Parthian period (c. 247 BC-AD 224), encompassing the diverse cultural, social and economic circles of its makers and handlers. It has, nevertheless, remained an understudied source of evidence for this period. The following research questions will be addressed: 1. How can we form a better understanding of the Arsacids’ transition from their tribal origins to an imperial successor of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty and the Achaemenid kings of preceding centuries? 2. Did the Arsacid dynasty perceive itself as a continuation of the deep- rooted Iranian tradition, and interweave its history into the existing narrative of Iran’s legendary and historical kings? 3. Using numismatic evidence, how can we better understand the revival of Mazdaean ideology within the iconography of the ruling Arsacid dynasty, particularly at a time when its rituals and hymns were performed orally across different centres of tradition? 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 6 I. Abstract ................................................................................................................................................ 6 II. Sources ................................................................................................................................................. 9 1. Greek and Latin Authors ...................................................................................................................................... 9 2. Chinese Authors ..................................................................................................................................................... 12 3. The Avesta and its Pahlavi Version ................................................................................................................ 14 4. Later Iranian Literature ...................................................................................................................................... 31 5. Epigraphic and Archaeological Sources ...................................................................................................... 35 III. Parthian Period Numismatic Sources .................................................................................. 42 1. Arsacid Coinage ...................................................................................................................................................... 42 2. Coinage of Vassal Kingdoms and Rebel Kings ........................................................................................... 53 IV. Literature Review ......................................................................................................................... 57 1. Hellenism and Iranian Revival ......................................................................................................................... 59 2. Mazdaean Religion under the Arsacids ....................................................................................................... 65 3. Depicting the Divine ............................................................................................................................................. 69 V. Methodology and Terminology .............................................................................................. 75 1. Methodological Approach .................................................................................................................................. 75 2. Terminology ............................................................................................................................................................ 81 CHAPTER ONE: FROM DAHAE-PARNI TO PARTHIANS ................................................... 87 I. Written Accounts of the Classical Western and Chinese Spheres ............................ 88 1. Greek and Roman .................................................................................................................................................. 88 2. Chinese .................................................................................................................................................................... 104 II. Literary, Epigraphic, Archaeological and Artistic Sources from Iran ................. 108 1. Achaemenid Period ........................................................................................................................................... 108 2. Hellenistic Period ............................................................................................................................................... 114 3. Parthian Period ................................................................................................................................................... 118 CHAPTER TWO: FROM PARTHIAN KINGS TO EMPERORS ......................................... 125 I. The Early Period - Arsaces I to Mithradates I ................................................................ 125 5 1. The Seated Archer and the Parthian Costume ....................................................................................... 126 2. The Ruler’s Portrait ........................................................................................................................................... 133 3. Dynastic Name and Titles ............................................................................................................................... 138 II. The Empire after Mithradates I and the Reign of Mithradates II ......................... 146 1. Imperial Troubles ............................................................................................................................................... 146 2. Imperial Consolidation .................................................................................................................................... 152 3. Parthian Symbols of Kingship in Neighbouring Kingdoms .............................................................. 166 CHAPTER THREE: HEROES ANCESTORS AND KINGS ................................................... 172 I. The Royal Archer in Ancient Near Eastern Tradition ................................................. 174 1. The Seleucid Archer .......................................................................................................................................... 175 2. The Achaemenid Archer and the Divine World .................................................................................... 178 3. Pre-Achaemenid Archers and Gods ............................................................................................................ 182 II. Post-Hellenistic Iran and the New Iranian Kings ......................................................... 187 1. The Royal Archer of the Frataraka in Persis ........................................................................................... 188 2. The Royal Archer of the Arsacids in Parthia ........................................................................................... 191 CHAPTER FOUR: BRONZE COINAGE IN PARTHIAN HISTORY ................................... 211 I. Bronze Coinage in the Iranian Highlands ........................................................................ 212