Individual Differences in Children’s Coping: The Independent and Interactive Roles of Coping Socialization and Parenting Behaviors in Families With and Without a History of Maternal Depression By Kelly Haker Watson Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Psychology August, 2016 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Bruce E. Compas, Ph.D. Judy Garber, Ph.D. Amy Needham, Ph.D. Sarah Jaser, Ph.D. ! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to my loving husband and dearest daughter, Levi and Adelaide, who have always supported and encouraged me in the pursuit of my ambitions and dreams. Thank you for walking alongside me through every step of my education and training. I would also like to thank my parents for providing me every opportunity to explore my passion and drive for learning, which has undoubtedly brought me to this moment. I am forever grateful to my mentor, Bruce Compas, for his exceptional guidance, consistent patience, and great sense of humor. I have been truly humbled by his belief in my potential and genuine commitment to my intellectual and professional development. He has provided unwavering support and leadership through the challenges and triumphs of graduate school. I am beyond thankful for his dedication to work that deeply benefits the lives of others, and it has been an unparalleled honor to contribute as part of his team. This study would not have been possible without the hard work and dedication of my fellow team members who believed in the significance of this project: Jenni Dunbar, Michelle Reising, Alex Bettis, Meredith Gruhn, Kim Savin, Francesca Penner, and Ellen Williams. I hope you each know how much you are valued and appreciated. I would also like to thank my committee members for their support and insight through my graduate school milestones. They have been instrumental in refining my thinking. Thank you to Judy Garber, Amy Needham, and Sarah Jaser. This research was supported by a generous gift from an anonymous donor. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ ii LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................v LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... vi Chapter I. BACKGROUND ..............................................................................................................1 Coping in childhood and adolescence ........................................................................2 Individual differences in children’s coping: The parental role ..................................5 Parental socialization of coping, parenting, and children’s coping .........................16 Parenting and coping socialization in the context of parental depression ...............17 Limitations of previous studies ................................................................................19 Current study ............................................................................................................21 Primary aims and hypotheses ...................................................................................22 II. METHOD ......................................................................................................................24 Participants ...............................................................................................................24 Procedure .................................................................................................................25 Measures ..................................................................................................................27 Data analytic approach .............................................................................................34 III. RESULTS ....................................................................................................................36 Preliminary analyses ................................................................................................36 Aim 1: Measurement development of observed maternal coping socialization ......37 Aim 2: Relations of maternal coping socialization and maternal characteristics ....39 Aim 3: Relations of maternal coping socialization and child characteristics ..........42 IV. DISCUSSION ..............................................................................................................46 Measurement of maternal coping socialization messages .......................................47 Maternal correlates of coping socialization messages .............................................54 Child correlates of coping socialization messages ...................................................57 Limitations ...............................................................................................................59 Strengths ..................................................................................................................60 Future directions ......................................................................................................60 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................64 iii Appendix A. Supplementary Analyses ...............................................................................................79 B. Beck Depression Inventory – II ...................................................................................84 C. Child Behavior Checklist ..............................................................................................89 D. Youth Self-Report .........................................................................................................94 E. Responses to Stress Questionnaire – Peer Version .......................................................99 F. Responses to Stress Questionnaire – Family Version .................................................104 G. The Socialization of Coping Questionnaire ................................................................109 H. Socialization of Coping Coding Manual .....................................................................112 I. Socialization of Coping Coding System Rules .............................................................137 J. Emotion Words for Socialization of Coping Coding. ..................................................144 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................146 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Description of IFIRS Codes for Composite ...........................................................65 2. Description of the Codes from the Socialization of Coping Coding Manual ........66 3. Socialization of Coping Codes: Content x Process of the Maternal Messages .....67 4. Descriptive Statistics for Symptoms, Coping, Maternal Coping Socialization Messages, and Parenting Behaviors .......................................................................68 5. Bivariate Pearson’s Correlation Matrix of Symptoms and Coping .......................69 6. Bivariate Pearson’s Correlations of Questionnaire Measure of Maternal Coping Socialization with Mother and Child Characteristics ................................70 7. Bivariate Pearson’s Correlations of Observed Maternal Coping Socialization with Mother and Child Characteristics ..................................................................71 8. Multiple Linear Regressions Examining Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Maternal Coping Socialization Messages Predicting Children’s Coping ..............72 9. Multiple Linear Regressions Examining Maternal Coping Socialization and Parenting Behaviors Predicting Children’s Coping (Mother-Report) ...................73 10. Multiple Linear Regressions Examining Maternal Coping Socialization and Parenting Behaviors Predicting Children’s Coping (Child-Report) ......................74 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Heuristic Model ......................................................................................................75 2. Maternal Socialization of Primary Control Coping Messages x Parenting Predicting Children’s Primary Control Coping (Mother-Report) ...........................76 3. Maternal Socialization of Primary Control Coping Messages x Parenting Predicting Children’s Primary Control Coping (Child-Report) ..............................77 4. Maternal Socialization of Disengagement Coping Messages x Parenting Predicting Children’s Disengagement Coping (Mother-Report) ............................78 vi CHAPTER I BACKGROUND Exposure to chronic stress is a significant risk factor for the development of emotional and behavioral problems from childhood through adulthood (Grant et al., 2003; 2004; Monroe, 2008). Research has shown that individuals living under conditions of chronic stress, including living with a depressed parent, are at significantly greater risk for experiencing a wide range of problems. Because exposure to varying levels of stress is unavoidable in modern life, a critical avenue of research has been to identify factors that reduce the negative effects of stress on emotional and physical health outcomes. Research indicates that the association between stress and psychopathology is mediated and moderated in part by the ways that children and adolescents cope with