Can Livestock and Wildlife Coexist? An Interdisciplinary Approach Edited by David Bourn and Roger Blench -*r •#**• ERGO This book grew out of a review commissioned by the Animal Health, Livestock Production and Natural Resources Systems Programmes of the UK Department for International Development's Renewable Natural Resources Knowledge Strategy. The Environmental Research Group Oxford was established in 1985 to provide consultancy services relating to environmental assessment, planning and management, including natural resource surveys, rural appraisal and geographical information systems. The Overseas Development Institute is an independent think-tank on international development and humanitarian issues. ODI provides research support and policy advice on development issues to governments, international agencies and non-governmental bodies. David Bourn is an environmental biologist and founding Director of ERGO. He is a graduate of Edinburgh and Oxford Universities, and has wide-ranging experience of Africa, specialising in natural resource surveys, environmental assessments and interdisciplinary studies. Roger Blench is a social anthropologist and a Research Fellow in the Rural Policy and Environment 'Programme at ODI. He has extensive field experience in Africa exploring issues relating to the interface between policy, the environment and traditional natural resource management. 00016953 Overseas Development Institute Can Livestock and Wildlife Co-exist? An Interdisciplinary Approach edited by David Bourn and Roger Blench GDI Research Study Can Livestock and Wildlife Co-exist? An Interdisciplinary Approach Livestock, Wildlife and People in the Semi-Arid Rangeland of Eastern Africa edited by David Bourn and Roger Blench with contributions from Charlotte Boyd Liz Drake Peter Stevenson Overseas Development Institute The Environmental Research Group Oxford A CIP Publication data record for this publication may be obtained from the British Library ISBN: 0 85003 408 6 © Overseas Development Institute 1999 Published by the Overseas Development Institute Portland House, Stag Place London SW1E 5DP All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Cover photograph reproduced with permission from Oxford Scientific Films. Printed by Russell Press Ltd, Nottingham. Contents Summary vii Preface xiii Abbreviations and Acronyms xv Acknowledgements and Contributors xviii T Introduction 1 Historical and Geographical Perspectives 2 Document Structure 6 2 Regional Setting and Population Trends 7 National Statistics and Development Indicators 7 Human Population Growth 8 Nationally Protected Areas and Management Authorities 8 Livestock and Wildlife Population Trends 11 3 Disease Risks Associated with Livestock and Wildlife Co-existence 20 Pastoralists' Strategies for Limiting Disease Risks to Livestock 20 Changing Circumstances 20 Animal Diseases of Current Concern 22 Disease Information and Monitoring 22 Status of Livestock/Wildlife Disease Research 26 4 Pastoral-Wildlife Relationships: Past and Present 27 Changing Conceptions of Rangeland Ecology 27 Diverse Impacts of Demographic Pressure 28 Evolution of Conservation Philosophies 33 5 Livestock and Wildlife in Sustainable Rural Livelihoods 38 Sustainable Rural Livelihoods 38 Role of Livestock 38 Wildlife/Livestock Interactions 40 6 Integrated Management of Livestock and Wildlife 42 Tenure and Access Rights 42 National Ownership 43 Private Ownership 44 Communal Tenure and CBNRM Systems 48 National and International Wildlife Institutions 56 7 Conclusions and Recommendations 57 Population Trends, Environmental Change and Potential Target Zones 57 Disease Risks 58 vi Can Livestock and Wildlife Co-exist? Conflict or Co-existence? 58 Policy Considerations 59 Priorities for Technical Support and Further Study 60 "Wider Relevance 61 Appendix 1 Maps 62 Map 1. People, Protected Areas and Tsetse in East Africa 63 Map 2. Agro-Climatic Zones 64 Map 3. Standard Vegetation Types 65 Map 4. Satellite Derived Land Cover Classes 66 Map 5. Pastoral Peoples of Africa 67 Map 6. Mean Annual Rainfall Range: 400-1200mm 68 Appendix 2 Brief Notes on Diseases Affecting both Livestock and Wildlife 69 References 85 Annotated Bibliography 105 Useful Websites 250 Tables Table 1. Summary of National Statistics and Development Indicators 7 Table 2. Kenya Rangeland Livestock and Wildlife Population Estimates: 1970-1990s 12 Table 3. Some Animal Diseases of Current Concern in East Africa 24 Table 4. Characteristics of Case Study Areas 29 Table 5. Chronology of Donor Initiatives 35 Table 6. Multi-Species Ranching in Kenya 46 Figures Figure 1. Human Population Density Trends: 1950-2025 9 Figure 2. Changes in Kenyan Rangeland Livestock & Wildlife Populations: 1970s-1990s 15 Figure 3. Population Trends in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area 16 Figure 4. Tanzanian Livestock Census Population Estimates:1971-1994 17 Figure 5. Land Cover Changes in Selected Areas of Kenya: 1948-98 30 Text Boxes Box 1. Brief History of Galana Ranch 31 Box 2. Views of the African Wildlife Foundation 36 Summary vii Summary Population Trends, Environmental Change and Potential Target Zones 1. Human population growth, agricultural expansion, deforestation, hunting and the ramifications of economic development have had profound, cumulative impacts on the environment, natural habitats and wildlife populations all over the world. East Africa is no exception. The number of people in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda has doubled over the past 20 years, and is set to double again in the next 30-40 years. 2. Settlement and cultivation are concentrated in areas of higher rainfall and greater agricultural potential, around Lake Victoria, in the highlands, and along the coast. Mean population density is highest in Uganda and lowest in Tanzania. Agricultural land scarcity, however, is greatest in Kenya because of generally lower rainfall. Nevertheless, the general trend in all three countries is for agricultural expansion and the transformation of natural habitats to farmland. 3. Extensive habitat conversion and unauthorised hunting, exacerbated by a proliferation of high-powered automatic weaponry in recent years, has hastened the long-term decline and disappearance of wildlife from many areas. Population estimates for the Kenya rangelands indicate that the overall number of wildlife has fallen by a third over the past two decades. Wildlife has been eliminated from much of Uganda, including many protected areas. In Tanzania, wildlife has also declined, but because of the country's size and relatively low human density, substantial wildlife populations survive in the extensive wildlands that still remain. 4. Livestock trends are less clear. Monitoring surveys indicate that cattle and small ruminant populations in the Kenya rangelands have fluctuated widely over time, but no significant long-term trends are evident. Low- level aerial surveys suggest that livestock out-number wildlife by a factor of 10:1. Limited data from the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania indicate that cattle numbers have decreased over the past 40 years, whilst there has been a substantial increase in small ruminants. National livestock population estimates for Tanzania indicate increases of between 150-250% from 1971 to 1994. 5. The best prospects in east Africa for demonstrating the sustainable co­ existence of livestock and wildlife are: in zones adjoining protected areas; in regions with relatively low rainfall and limited potential for arable farming; where human population density is relatively low; and where livestock owners predominate, or are a major component of local viii Can Livestock and Wildlife Co-exist? communities. Potential zones of interest include: Maasai Mara, Meru, Tsavo and Samburu in Kenya; Mikumi, Mkomasi, Ngorongoro, Tarangire, Ruaha, Serengeti and Udzungwa in Tanzania; and Kidepo Valley and Lake Mburo in Uganda. Disease Risks 1. Diseases need not be a major constraint to wildlife and livestock co­ existence in the semi-arid rangelands. 2. Although there are many diseases that can affect both wildlife and livestock, only a few are considered to pose a significant risk to livestock production. 3. The majority of game animals are not involved to any significant extent in the transmission of disease to livestock. Exceptions include the African buffalo and the wildebeest, both of which can, under certain circumstances, transmit serious disease to livestock. 4. With increasing human population, altering land use and changing farming systems, the relevance and importance of diseases involving wildlife and livestock are changing. Strategies to manage the diseases must, in some situations, be altered to take account of these changes. 5. With increasing human populations and encroachment into areas bordering wildlife reserves, there is an increasing risk of disease spreading from domestic animals to wild animals. Strategies to protect valuable wildlife species from introduced disease need to be developed. 6. There is a general scarcity of information on the occurrence and importance of the various diseases affecting livestock and wildlife in the semi-arid rangelands. Better disease surveillance is required, with improved systems of information management and dissemination. 7. In-country expertise on wildlife diseases is limited and resources for research are lacking. Socio-economic