S T E E L S Processing, Structure, and Performance Second Edition George Krauss ASM International® Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002 asminternational.org Copyright © 2015 by ASM International® All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner. First printing, February 2015 Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this book, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. 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Krauss All rights reserved asminternational.org Contents Preface to the Second Edition of Steels: Processing, Structure, and Performance .......................................xi Preface to Steels: Processing, Structure, and Performance (2005)....xiv Preface to Steels: Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles (1990)...............................................xvi Preface to Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel (1980) ............xix About the Author ..........................................xxi CHAPTER 1 Introduction—Purpose of Text, Microstructure and Analysis, Steel Definitions, and Specifications ........ 1 Purpose of This Book...................................... 1 Size Scales . 1 Instrumentation . 2 Integration of Microstructure into the Physical Metallurgy of Steel . 4 Microstructure of Steels.................................... 1 Steels—Definitions ....................................... 4 Steel Specifications ....................................... 6 References . 7 CHAPTER 2 History and Primary Steel Processing ...................... 9 The Early Metallographers—Naming of Phases and Microstructures in Steels .............................. 12 Current Steelmaking ..................................... 13 References . 15 iv / Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition CHAPTER 3 Phases and Structures ................................. 17 The Iron- Carbon Equilibrium Diagram ....................... 17 Crystal Structures of Iron.................................. 21 Effects of Carbon ........................................ 23 Crystal Structures in Fe-C Alloys ........................... 24 The Eutectoid Equilibrium and Effects of Alloying Elements ................................... 27 Critical Temperatures..................................... 30 The Peritectic Equilibrium and Reaction in Steels .............. 32 Crystal Imperfections and Slip.............................. 33 Diffusion in Steel ........................................ 35 References . 37 CHAPTER 4 Pearlite, Ferrite, and Cementite ......................... 39 Eutectoid Transformation.................................. 39 Structure of Pearlite ...................................... 41 Pearlite Transformation Kinetics ............................ 43 Alloying Elements and Pearlite Formation .................... 50 Interphase Precipitation ................................... 52 Divorced Eutectoid Transformation—Dispersed Carbide Particles in Ferrite........................................... 54 Proeutectoid Phases ...................................... 56 Proeutectoid Phase Formation .............................. 58 References . 60 CHAPTER 5 Martensite.......................................... 63 General Considerations ................................... 63 Martensitic Transformation Kinetics ......................... 68 Crystallography of Martensitic Transformation................. 75 Morphology of Ferrous Martensites ......................... 79 Plate Martensite ......................................... 80 Lath Martensite ......................................... 85 References . 93 CHAPTER 6 Bainite............................................. 99 Bainite—An Intermediate Temperature Transformation Product of Austenite ........................................ 99 Bainite Transformation Start Temperatures ................... 100 Bainite versus Ferritic Microstructures ...................... 101 Contents / v Upper Bainite.......................................... 103 Lower Bainite.......................................... 105 Bainite Formation Mechanisms ............................ 107 Mechanical Behavior of Ferrite-Carbide Bainites .............. 109 References . .111 CHAPTER 7 Ferritic Microstructures .............................. 113 The Dubé Classification System for Proeutectoid Ferritic Microstructures .....................................114 General Considerations—Cooling-Rate- Induced Changes in Ferrite.............................................115 Classification Systems for Ferritic Microstructures..............118 References . 129 CHAPTER 8 Austenite in Steel ................................... 133 Introduction—The Critical Importance of Austenite............ 133 Austenite Grain Size and Measurement...................... 134 Austenite Formation..................................... 139 Time-Temperature- Austenitizing Diagrams .................. 143 Austenite Grain Growth in the Absence of Second Phases ....... 145 Austenite Grain Size in Aluminum-Killed Steels .............. 149 Austenite Grain-Size Control in Microalloyed Steels ........... 153 Hot Deformation of Austenite ............................. 157 References . 159 CHAPTER 9 Primary Processing Effects on Steel Microstructure and Properties .................................. 163 Inclusions—Types and Origins ............................ 164 Inclusion Identification and Characterization ................. 170 Effect of Inclusions on Mechanical Properties ................ 172 Solidification: Chemical Changes .......................... 174 Solidification—Dendrites and Interdendritic Segregation ........ 176 Hot Work and Its Effect on Solidification Structure ............ 181 Banded Microstructures.................................. 184 The Effect of Banding on Mechanical Properties .............. 187 References . 191 vi / Steels—Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition CHAPTER 10 Isothermal and Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams ...................................... 197 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams ....................... 197 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams................ 200 Continuous Cooling Transformation and Bar Diameter ......... 208 Summary ............................................. 210 References . .211 CHAPTER 11 Deformation, Strengthening, and Fracture of Ferritic Microstructures ................................. 213 Tensile Deformation, Strain Hardening, and Ductile Fracture .... 213 The Ductile-to- Brittle Transition in bcc Ferrite................ 217 Continuous and Discontinuous Yielding of Ferritic Microstructures .................................... 220 Aging Phenomena in Ferritic Microstructures................. 224 Grain- Size Effects on Strength and Fracture of Ferritic Microstructures .................................... 226 Dispersion Strengthening of Ferritic