Urbanization and Poverty in Maseru: A Comparative Study of Sekamaneng, Motimposo and Thibella Keneuoe A. Motŝoene A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies School of Social Sciences University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg, South Africa Declaration I declare that this dissertation/ thesis is my own original and unaided intellectual work. It is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Development Studies) in the University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted for any other degree or examination in any other university here in South Africa or elsewhere in the world. Keneuoe A. Motŝoene Signature: ……………….....Date: ……………………… ii Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge and extend my heartfelt gratitude to the following persons who made the completion of this thesis possible. My Supervisor, Professor Noor Nieftagodien, for his vital encouragement and support in the compilation of pieces that made up this work, which was duly strenuous. Faculty members and staff, their understanding and assistance, with constant reminders and much needed motivation, Government of Lesotho (NMDS), the Universities of the Witwatersrand and the National University of Lesotho for both the opportunity and the financial support they granted me in pursuit of this degree. My family for the help and inspiration it extended during this lengthy period, the community members for assisting in the collection of the data for this Thesis, all friends. Moreover, to God, who made all things possible. iii Abstract In the six decades since the mid 20th century, the world has experienced phenomenal urban growth, especially in the developing world. This growth has been closely associated with increasing levels of poverty and deprivation characterized by lack of access to safe water supplies, proper sanitation and access to assets. Other features include slums, informal settlements and low employment. In Africa, there has been subjection of cities to a profound disjuncture between demographic, economic and political structures. The urban population in the region has been doubling every seven years. This demographic shift is taking place within a context of low rates of economic growth and political engagement between the state and civil society. Lesotho, while sharing these experiences, is also one of the poorest countries in the world, ranking 158 out of 177 according to the UN Human Development Index. This has largely determined the nature of urbanization, with deepening economic problems in most of the country, rural and urban, resulting in poverty. Nevertheless, there has been a profound shift in location of that poverty. Whereas before it was overwhelmingly a rural phenomenon, now poverty is urbanized. In addition, due to the nature of urban development in the country, poverty is primarily concentrated in Maseru – the primary city of this small, land-locked country. While literature concentrates much on developing world cities, including those of Africa, it is silent on the impact of urbanization on poverty in Maseru. This thesis attempts to fill this gap and argues that rapid and differentiated forms of urbanization have increased poverty in Maseru. The study aims at investigating the relationship between urbanization and urban poverty in Maseru, the capital city of Lesotho. It studies how differentiated forms and patterns of urbanization have affected the manifestations of poverty in different parts of Maseru. It also analyses the different livelihood strategies employed by the poor residents of such areas. Thus, this research study first analyzes the manifestations of poverty by the rapid and differentiated processes of urbanization among the poor in the three communities (Thibella, Sekamaneng and Motimposo) in Maseru. Second, it analyzes how the urban poor cope with poverty, as the increase in urbanization has unsettled conventional livelihood strategies, compelling them to employ different livelihood strategies to survive. Further, the study examines how the urban governance systems and people within them are coping with these pressures. The study engaged documentary review, interviews and observation to iv unpack these main research objectives, and hence established the link between urbanization and urban poverty through interpretive analysis and inference. The increased poverty in Maseru resulted from Lesotho and Maseru‟s historic development trends, as the results confirm. However, urbanization significantly exacerbated this poverty. The results also show that Maseru has experienced unprecedented and largely unplanned growth causing inadequate and skewed distribution of services. A city has arisen in an area that previously contained rural settlements scattered around a small (colonial) administrative centre. It is now exploding with people from remote villages around the country seeking employment opportunities and better services. Perceived employment opportunities draw them, resulting from the concentration of jobs and facilities in the city. Though the city has become a magnet for them, it lacks enough absorptive capacity. There is, hence, jobless growth and poverty escalation in Maseru. The continuing retrenchments in South African mines have also increased population in Maseru, adding to more strain on the existing basic services, which frequently remain inaccessible in the city. At the same time, Maseru continues to expand into peri-urban villages, which for a long time have been poor. These areas depended on subsistence agriculture. However, land previously used for cultivation is fast disappearing due to new settlers from other parts of the country. These varied processes of urban growth (inward migration and urban encroachment) have affected the manifestations of poverty and created different experiences of poverty in Maseru and, in turn, shaped the livelihood strategies of its inhabitants. However, urban governance is failing to cope with the demands of this growth, thus increasing poverty. The study has eight chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction and methodological approach to the entire study. Chapter 2 outlines the theoretical debates forming the basis for the analysis of the study. Chapter 3 gives an account of Lesotho and Maseru‟s historic developments including urbanization and causes of poverty. Chapter 4 traces the history and development of Maseru, presenting an empirical analysis on the effect of urbanization on manifestations of poverty. Chapter 5 analyzes the response of urban governance to poverty, revealing challenges confronting local authorities particularly in basic services delivery. Chapter 6 exposes the urban household historical transition giving an account of gender dynamics and their influence on household vulnerability. Chapter 7 presents an empirical analysis of urban livelihoods as influenced by urbanization while chapter 8 concludes that the prevailing poverty in Maseru is largely a result of Lesotho and Maseru‟s underdevelopment, with urbanization only worsening the condition. v Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iii Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iv List of Appendices ..................................................................................................................... x List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xi Pictures ...................................................................................................................................... xi Abbreviations/Acronyms ......................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1 Study‟s Aim ............................................................................................................................... 9 Key Questions .......................................................................................................................... 10 Rationale .................................................................................................................................. 10 Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 13 Archival Research .................................................................................................................... 15 Life History Interviews ............................................................................................................ 17 Observation .............................................................................................................................. 19 Choosing the Respondents ....................................................................................................... 20 Study Outline ........................................................................................................................... 23 CHAPTER