Culture and Customs of Liberia Liberia. Cartography by Bookcomp. Culture and Customs of Liberia 4 AYODEJI OLUKOJU Culture and Customs of Africa Toyin Falola, Series Editor GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut • London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Olukoju, Ayodeji. Culture and customs of Liberia / Ayodeji Olukoju. p. cm. — (Culture and customs of Africa, ISSN 1530–8367) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–313–33291–6 (alk. paper) 1. Liberia—Social life and customs. 2. Liberia—Civilization. I. Title. II. Series. DT629.O45 2006 966.62—dc22 2005030569 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2006 by Ayodeji Olukoju All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005030569 ISBN 0–313–33291–6 ISSN: 1530–8367 First published in 2006 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Copyright Acknowledgments The author and publisher gratefully acknowledge permission to reprint the following: Song lyrics from the Liberian Studies Journal, “Categories of Traditional Liberian Songs” by Moore and “Bai T. Moore’s Poetry…” by Ofri-Scheps. Reprinted with permission of Liberian Studies Journal via Copyright Clearance Center. In loving memory of my beloved grandparents: Naomi and Emmanuel Olukoju, of Iroho, Okia, Oka-Akoko and Ibitola and John Odole, of Iyayu, Idoani Contents Series Foreword ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii Chronology xv 1 Introduction 1 2 Religion and Worldview 21 3 Literature and Media 41 4 Art, Architecture, and Housing 59 5 Cuisine and Traditional Dress 79 6 Gender Roles, Marriage, and Family 91 7 Social Customs and Lifestyle 109 8 Music and Dance 127 Glossary 147 Index 151 Series Foreword Africa is a vast continent, the second largest, after Asia. It is four times the size of the United States, excluding Alaska. It is the cradle of human civiliza- tion. A diverse continent, Africa has more than fi fty countries with a popula- tion of over 700 million people who speak over 1,000 languages. Ecological and cultural differences vary from one region to another. As an old continent, Africa is one of the richest in culture and customs, and its contributions to world civilization are impressive indeed. Africans regard culture as essential to their lives and future development. Culture embodies their philosophy, worldview, behavior patterns, arts, and institutions. The books in this series intend to capture the comprehensiveness of African culture and customs, dwelling on such important aspects as religion, worldview, literature, media, art, housing, archiecture, cuisine, traditional dress, gender, marriage, family, lifestyles, social customs, music, and dance. The uses and defi nitions of “culture” vary, refl ecting its prestigious associa- tion with civilization and social status, its restriction to attitude and behavior, its globalization, and the debates surrounding issues of tradition, modernity, and postmodernity. The participating authors have chosen a comprehensive meaning of culture while not ignoring the alternative uses of the term. Each volume in the series focuses on a single country, and the format is uniform. The fi rst chapter presents a historical overview, in addition to infor- mation on geography, economy, and politics. Each volume then proceeds to examine the various aspects of culture and customs. The series highlights the mechanisms for the transmission of tradition and culture across generations: the x SERIES FOREWORD signifi cance of orality, traditions, kinship rites, and family property distribu- tion; the rise of print culture; and the impact of educational institutions. The series also explores the intersections between local, regional, national, and global bases for identity and social relations. While the volumes are organized nationally, they pay attention to ethnicity and language groups and the links between Africa and the wider world. The books in the series capture the elements of continuity and change in culture and customs. Custom is not represented as static or as a museum arti- fact, but as a dynamic phenomenon. Furthermore, the authors recognize the current challenges to traditional wisdom, which include gender relations; the negotiation of local identities in relation to the state; the signifi cance of strug- gles for power at national and local levels and their impact on cultural traditions and community-based forms of authority; and the tensions between agrarian and industrial/manufacturing/oil-based economic modes of production. Africa is a continent of great changes, instigated mainly by Africans but also through infl uences from other continents. The rise of youth culture, the penetration of the global media, and the challenges to generational stability are some of the components of modern changes explored in the series. The ways in which traditional (non-Western and nonimitative) African cultural forms continue to survive and thrive, that is, how they have taken advantage of the market system to enchance their infl uence and reproductions, also receive attention. Through the books in this series, readers can see their own cultures in a different perspective, understand the habits of Africans, and educate them- selves about the customs and cultures of other countries and people. The hope is that the readers will come to respect the cultures of others and see them not as inferior or superior to theirs, but merely as different. Africa has always been important to Europe and the United States, essentially as a source of labor, raw materials, and markets. Blacks are in Europe and the Americas as part of the African diaspora, a migration that took place primarily because of the slave trade. Recent African migrants increasingly swell their number and visibility. It is important to understand the history of the diaspora and the newer migrants, as well as the roots of the culture and customs of the places from where they come. It is equally important to understand others in order to be able to interact successfully in a world that keeps shrinking. The accessible nature of the books in this series will contribute to this understand- ing and enhance the quality of human interaction in a new millennium. Toyin Falola Frances Higginbothom Nalle Centennial Professor in History The University of Texas at Austin Preface This book focuses on aspects of the culture and customs of Liberia: indigenous and externally derived religious practices; literature and media; art and archi- tecture; dress and food culture; family, gender, and marriage practices; social customs and lifestyle; and music and dance. Much attention is paid to conti- nuity and change in lifestyle and cultural forms, and the agents and direction of change. The numerically insignifi cant Americo-Liberians and descendants of liberated slaves played a disproportionately great role in the evolution of several aspects of Liberian culture, including dress, cuisine, Christian religious practices, Western-style marriage customs, and Western literacy. The blend of the indigenous and foreign has thus produced a Liberian culture that is heavily infl uenced by Western (especially American) ideas. Yet many indigenous elements, including secret societies such as the Poro and Sande, have survived the Western impact and have continued to play some role in the development of Liberian society. As well, political turbulence in the country since the 1980 coup has traumatized the peoples of Liberia, generating forced population movements that brought many diverse peoples together. The confl ict thus indirectly fostered the blend of cultures in places such as Monrovia and other urban centers, and in refugee camps outside the country, where refugees of diverse origins have had to interact at close range. English serves as the lingua franca, a heritage of American involvement in the establishment of the Liberian colony in the nineteenth century. However, even that foreign language has come to terms with local usage, refl ected in the varieties of English, including Standard Liberian English and pidgin. In spite of efforts of various ethnic groups to promote group identity in Liberia and xii PREFACE the diaspora, English in its various forms continues to be the dominant medium of offi cial and business transactions, especially in government service and schools. This is especially so given that there is no clearly dominant eth- nic group with a language spoken by a sizable proportion of the population. Yet the early invention of various indigenous scripts, such as the Vai script, illustrates how the stimulus provided by Islamic and Western literacy has aided indigenous literacy. Liberian music has likewise exemplifi ed the blend of the indigenous and the foreign. Employing local and foreign instruments and lyrics, brands of music often representing an amalgam of the indigenous and foreign elements have since fl ourished in the country and been exported overseas. Liberian dance forms refl ect the different cultures of the country’s ethnic groups. While some are purely secular, others are exclusive to secret societies such as Poro and Sande. Like music, language, and education, Liberian cuisine