Lincoln University Digital Thesis Copyright Statement The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). This thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: you will use the copy only for the purposes of research or private study you will recognise the author's right to be identified as the author of the thesis and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate you will obtain the author's permission before publishing any material from the thesis. All for naught? A critical study of zero waste to landfill initiatives A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Lincoln University by Robert Krausz Lincoln University 2012 i ii Abstract of a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Abstract All for naught? A critical study of zero waste to landfill initiatives by Robert Krausz Modern human society operates under a prevailing waste management paradigm,that is based upon linear systems which convert resources, through synthesis of problematic materials and disposability-focused manufacturing processes, into largely non-recoverable and poorly-degradable wastes which ultimately require dumping in landfills. Zero waste is an alternative paradigm based on circular systems thinking, where wastes are fully recovered through the use of appropriate materials only, and design for durability. The global zero waste movement has emerged in response to mounting waste-related problems which include pollution, health impacts, and the loss of land to new landfills. Zero waste initiatives have been launched around the world, primarily at the local government level where responsibility for dealing with waste typically falls. Zero waste goals range from aspirational-only to 100% diversion – the latter meaning zero waste to landfill, which is the specific focus of this study. The initial findings of this study reveal no examples of zero waste to landfill initiative success to date. A grounded approach is used to explore this relatively new phenomenon, with the threefold aim of better understanding the root causes of this chronic failure, how such campaigns might become successful, and how the zero waste to landfill story informs the wider discourse on global sustainability efforts. Four case studies are investigated in depth, using a combination of qualitative analysis from site visits, policy decisions and actions, and open-ended interviews with stakeholders, as well as quantitative analysis of waste generation trends as the limited and inconsistent nature of this available data permits. Zero waste to landfill is a supermegaproject, as it requires massive and unprecedented transformation from all sectors: retooling of industry, behaviour change from the public, and leadership from government. However, proponents consistently fail to openly recognise the iii full magnitude of such a goal, and as a result the launch of each campaign is followed notably by the emergence of a planning void: the lack of a sufficiently comprehensive blueprint for implementing 100% diversion. Zero waste to landfill initiatives are thus unacknowledged supermegaprojects: undertakings which are destined to fail because they lack the depth of planning and effort required to overcome the steep resistance gradient comprising industry resistance, public apathy, and a lack of leadership from government. Underpinning the consistent failure of zero waste to landfill initiatives is a stubborn preference for technical solutions, such as expanded recycling schemes, which are primarily aimed at the end-of-pipe, and have proven to be unequal to the task of achieving 100% diversion. Success in achieving zero waste to landfill appears to require a more fundemental and behaviour change-based paradigm shift, requiring top-of-pipe solutions including appropriate materials selection, increased localisation of production, and an overall circular systems approach to the relationship between resources and waste. Such transformation, though, does not appear to be possible under present economic, political and social conditions, and therefore it is not realistic for local governments to be adopting zero waste to landfill goals at this time. The waste management paradigm, nonetheless, remains an unsustainable human-caused deviation from natural equilibria based upon circular resource-waste-resource systems. As such, a shift to zero waste thinking and action is inevitable – but while it might be possible for human society to initiate this change proactively, it appears more likely that it will take a significant waste-related crisis to force the loop closed. This situation of chronic failure, leading to likely environmental crisis, appears to be a recurring theme with other global sustainability efforts beyond just zero waste – notably the failure of governments to effect meaningful behaviour change on energy use, with the result that climate change mitigation is an increasingly evident case of the failure of human society to address important ecological issues. This study, it is hoped, offers a new perspective from which the wider set of contemporary challenges to long-term sustainability can be addressed successfully. Keywords: zero waste to landfill, unacknowledged supermegaproject, planning void, technical solutions, paradigm shift, planning fallacy, strategic misrepresentation, crisis. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank Ken Hughey and Roy Montgomery for their supervision support, and Suzanne Vallance and Jody Beck for their help and advice early in the thesis process. Thanks are also due to the Lincoln University Library staff for their assistance throughout my research and thesis writeup, to the Department of Environmental Management office staff for their logistical support, to the Information Technology Services staff for their ongoing help, and to the Scholarships office for their support of my studies. To all of the politicians, government staff, industry representatives, and grassroots group and individual members of the public who offered their time to talk about zero waste initiatives, I offer my gratitude – this research was greatly enhanced by their input. Lastly, I want to thank my family, who have by far been my greatest source of support and strength. Any of them would make a great expert on zero waste, in my opinion. This thesis is dedicated to the people of the future, who must reap what we sow. v Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. vi List of Tables .................................................................................................................. viii List of Figures ................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: The Problem of Zero Waste to Landfill Failure ................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 The Waste Problem 2 1.2 The Zero Waste Movement 8 1.3 Emphasis on Zero Waste to Landfill 12 1.4 Initial Research Findings: No Zero Waste to Landfill Success Anywhere 17 1.5 Research Questions 20 1.6 Consideration of Theory to Address the Research Questions 21 1.7 Summary 22 Chapter 2: Methodology .................................................................................................. 25 2.0 Introduction 25 2.1 A Grounded Approach to Theory 26 2.2 Case Studies of Zero Waste to Landfill Initiatives 31 2.3 Mixed Qualitative/Quantitative Approach 41 2.4 Completing the Study 50 2.5 Summary of Study Methodology 51 2.6 Overview of Case Study Chapters 55 Chapter 3: Canberra ........................................................................................................ 57 3.0 Introduction 57 3.1 Canberra: Australian Capital and Territorial Centre 58 3.2 Timeline: ACT NoWaste by 2010 Initiative 58 3.3 Launch of ACT NoWaste by 2010 60 3.4 1996-2000: Early Mixed Results 61 3.5 2000-2004: Progress And Doubt 63 3.6 2004-2009: Demise and Abandonment of ACT NoWaste by 2010 64 3.7 2009-Present: ACT NoWaste – No Deadline 66 3.8 Stakeholder Perspectives on the ACT NoWaste Initiative 68 3.9 Summary of the ACT NoWaste Initiative 78 Chapter 4: Christchurch ................................................................................................... 82 4.0 Introduction 82 4.1 Christchurch: Rebuilding Hub of New Zealand’s South Island 83 4.2 Timeline: Christchurch Zero Waste to Landfill by 2020 Initiative 84 4.3 Zero Waste to Landfill Initiatives in Christchurch and Across New Zealand 86 4.4 1998-2001: The ‘Zero Waste to Landfill’ Years 91 4.5 2001-2005: On the Road Towards a Vision of Zero Waste 101 4.6 2005-Present: The Kate Valley Landfill Era Begins in Canterbury 110 4.7 Stakeholder Perspectives on the Christchurch Zero Waste to Landfill Initiative 114 4.8 Summary of Christchurch’s Zero Waste to Landfill Initiative 135 vi Chapter 5: Toronto ........................................................................................................ 139 5.0 Introduction 139 5.1 Toronto: Economic and Provincial Capital 140 5.2 Timeline: