NaFoL2 Website: Student’s Handbook On this website, you will find: z a full table of contents with all the section headings z the glossary, reproduced from the textbook, for online reference z further activities for each chapter, together with answers and comments For access to the Online Resources page, with links to useful websites, click here. Table of Contents (setting out the sections of each chapter for easy reference) 1. Describing Language 1.1 What is language? 1.1.1 Speech and writing 1.1.2 Words and sentences 1.1.3 Language is . 1.2 Language is contextualized 1.2.1 Psychological factors 1.2.2 Geographical factors 1.2.3 Social factors 1.2.4 Purpose factors 1.3 Describing language: the linguistic disciplines 1.3.1 Describing sounds 1.3.2 Describing words 1.3.3 Describing sentences 1.3.4 Describing discourses and texts 1.3.5 Describing meaning 1.3.6 Describing language and the individual 1.3.7 Describing language and social variation 1.3.8 Describing language in use 1.3.9 Summarizing . 1.4 Language data 1.4.1 Introspection 1.4.2 Elicitation 1.4.3 Corpora © Howard Jackson and Peter Stockwell Jackson, H. and Stockwell, P. (2011) An Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language. London: Continuum. 2. A Toolkit for Language Analysis 2.1 Sounds and letters 2.1.1 Vowels 2.1.2 Consonants 2.1.3 Syllables 2.1.4 Variation 2.1.5 Letter-sound correspondence 2.1.6 Stress and intonation 2.1.7 Punctuation 2.1.8 Accent and handwriting 2.2 Words 2.2.1 Words and homonyms 2.2.2 Word classes and inflections 2.2.3 Prefixes and suffixes 2.2.4 Compound words 2.2.5 Word meaning 2.2.6 Synonyms and antonyms 2.2.7 Collocations and idioms 2.3 Sentences 2.3.1 Subject, Object and Complement 2.3.2 Noun phrase 2.3.3 Verb phrase 2.3.4 Adverbials 2.3.5 Clauses 2.3.6 Sentences 2.3.7 Sentence rearrangements 2.4 Variability and correctness 2.4.1 Idiolect and dialect 2.4.2 Changing language 2.4.3 Creative language 3. Analysing Texts and Discourses 3.1 Discourse and text 3.2 Register 3.2.1 Field 3.2.2 Tenor 3.2.3 Mode 3.3 Function 3.3.1 Narrative 3.3.2 Descriptive 3.3.3 Expository 3.3.4 Persuasive 3.3.5 Instructional © Howard Jackson and Peter Stockwell Jackson, H. and Stockwell, P. (2011) An Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language. London: Continuum. 3.4 Conversation 3.4.1 Turn-taking and floor-holding 3.4.2 Adjacency pairs 3.4.3 Topic shift 3.5 Multimodal Texts 3.5.1 Reading multimodal texts 3.5.2 Analysing a multimodal text 3.6 Textuality 3.6.1 Coherence 3.6.2 Text structuring 3.6.3 Cohesion 4. Language Change 4.1 Pre-history of English 4.1.1 The earliest language 4.1.2 Early Celtic languages in the British Isles 4.1.3 The effect of the Romans 4.1.4 The Germanic influence 4.2 Old English/Anglo-Saxon 4.2.1 Case system 4.2.2 Surviving remnants of the case system 4.2.3 Word formation in Old English 4.2.4 The loss of inflections and Danish influence 4.3 Middle English 4.3.1 The re-establishment of English 4.3.2 Middle English grammar 4.3.3 Middle English dialects 4.4 Modern English 4.4.1 Pronunciation change in the Renaissance 4.4.2 The standardization of written English 4.5 Types of language change 4.5.1 Grammatical change 4.5.2 Lexical change 4.5.3 Semantic change 4.5.4 Pronunciation change 4.5.5 Reasons for language change 5. Language Acquisition and Development 5.1 Growth of language structures 5.1.1 Sounds 5.1.2 Inflections 5.1.3 Grammatical structures 5.1.4 Vocabulary © Howard Jackson and Peter Stockwell Jackson, H. and Stockwell, P. (2011) An Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language. London: Continuum. 5.2 Development of language functions 5.3 Language in thinking and conceptualizing 5.4 Language and the development of communication 5.5 School years: reading and writing 5.6 Finding out about language acquisition 5.7 Acquiring a second language: bilingualism 6. Language Variation 6.1 Sociolinguistics 6.2 Accent and dialect 6.2.1 Regional geography 6.2.2 The linguistic variable 6.2.3 Age and language loyalty 6.2.4 Social class 6.2.5 Gender 6.3 English as a world language 6.3.1 American English 6.3.2 Artificial varieties of English 6.3.3 Pidgins and creoles 6.4 Multilingualism 6.4.1 Code-switching 6.5 Language and disadvantage 6.6 Attitudes and correctness 7. Language in Use 7.1 Pragmatics 7.1.1 Speech acts and conversational maxims 7.1.2 The supermaxim of relevance 7.1.3 Politeness 7.2 The analysis of discourse 7.2.1 Oracy and literacy 7.2.2 Conversation analysis 7.2.3 Coherence and framing 7.3 Language and ideology 7.3.1 Lexical choice 7.3.2 Agency 7.3.3 Modality 7.3.4 Point of view 7.4 Stylistics 7.4.1 Analysing types of text © Howard Jackson and Peter Stockwell Jackson, H. and Stockwell, P. (2011) An Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language. London: Continuum. Glossary (the section numbers refer to the chapters/sections in the book where the concept is introduced and explained further) accent: characteristic pronunciation of a geographical area or a social group (1.2.2, 2.1.8, 6.2) acronym: a word formed from the initial letters of a phrase, sometimes spelt out letter by letter (also called an initialism, e.g. BBC), sometimes pronounced as a word (e.g. NATO) (4.5.2) adjacency pair: a pair of utterances in a dialogue that form a predictable sequence, e.g. greeting-greeting, question-answer, complaint-apology (3.4.2) adjectival clause: a clause that functions like an adjective to modify a noun, e.g. a relative clause (2.3.5) adjective: a class of words used to modify nouns, e.g. tall, round, pretty (2.2.2) adverb: a class of words used to specify the circumstances of an action or event, e.g. the manner (slowly), the time (soon), the place (here); it also includes conjunctive adverbs (however) and adverb particles (up, out) (2.2.2) adverbial: a type of element in sentence structure, referring to the circumstances of the sentence, often expressed by an adverb, prepositional phrase, or adverbial clause (2.3.4) adverbial clause: a clause, often introduced by a subordinating conjunction (if, because, although) that functions as an adverbial in sentence structure (2.3.5) affix: a part of a word that is added to a root, either in front (prefix) or behind (suffix) (2.2.3) allophone: a variant pronunciation of a phoneme, e.g. the ‘clear’ [l] of lip and the ‘dark’ [~l] of pill (2.1.4) Anglo-Saxon: the group of dialects spoken by the fifth-century invaders of England, which developed into the English language (4.1.4) antonym: a word that is opposite in meaning to another word, e.g. dark and light (2.2.6) approximant: a type of consonant that is articulated without restriction to the airflow, /w r j/ in English (2.1.2) article: a subclass of the determiner word class, including the definite article ‘the’ and the indefinite article ‘a’ (2.2.2) © Howard Jackson and Peter Stockwell Jackson, H. and Stockwell, P. (2011) An Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language. London: Continuum. articulation, manner of: the way in which the airflow is modified in the pronunciation of a consonant, e.g. stop/plosive, fricative (2.1.2) articulation, place of: the articulators in the mouth involved in the pronunciation of a consonant, e.g. bilabial, velar (2.1.2) aspiration: the puff of air that accompanies the articulation of voicless stops in English, especially when they occur initially in a word, e.g. pot [phot], can [khan] (2.1.4) assimilation: the alteration in the articulation of a sound in the direction of a neighbouring, usually following, sound, e.g. fun park - /f∧m pa:k/ (2.1.4) auxiliary verb: a small set of verbs, including the modal verbs, be, have and do, which accompany lexical verbs and indicate modality, progressive and perfect aspects, and passive voice (2.3.3) babbling period: the time, from around three months old, when babies seem to be trying out the articulation of speech sounds (5.1.1) backformation: the derivation of a new word by removing a supposed affix from an exisiting one, as edit from editor, babysit from babysitter (4.5.2) bilingual: being able to speak two languages with reasonable fluency; an infant bilingual acquires two languages from birth; a child bilingual begins acquiring the second language a little later in childhood (5.7) blending: a word-formation process in which a word is created from the blending together of two exisitng words, usually taking the start of one and the end of the other, e.g. motel from motor and hotel (4.5.2) case: a grammatical category that applies to nouns and pronouns and that signals the syntactic function (as subject, object, possessor) of the noun/pronoun; cases in English nouns are: genitive and common; in pronouns: subjecive, objective, genitive (2.2.2, 4.2.1) Celtic: the group of languages spoken in the British Isles before AD 400, of which Welsh and Gaelic are survivors (4.1.2) class stratification: the division of society into a hierarchy of classes (usually from the Registrar General’s classification) for the purpose of sociolinguistic investigation (6.2.4) classical compound: a word formed from two elements (called combining forms) that were roots in Latin or Greek, combined to make a modern English word, e.g.