From idol to art African ‘objects with power’: a challenge for missionaries, anthropologists and museum curators African Studies Centre African Studies Collection, vol. 59 From idol to art African ‘objects with power’: a challenge for missionaries, anthropologists and museum curators Harrie Leyten Published by: African Studies Centre P.O. Box 9555 2300 RB Leiden The Netherlands [email protected] http://www.ascleiden.nl Cover design: Heike Slingerland Cover photos: Left: An Ikenga of the Igbo, Nigeria. Courtesy of the Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford Middle: Asuman, probably of the Ashanti, Fanti and Sefwi, Ghana. Courtesy of the Afrika Museum, Berg en Dal Right: Nkisi mabiala ma ndembe of the Yombe, Congo. Courtesy of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Author has made all reasonable efforts to trace all rights holders to any copyrighted ma- terial used in this work. In cases where these efforts have not been successful the pub- lisher welcomes communications from copyright holders, so that the appropriate acknowledgements can be made in future editions, and to settle other permission mat- ters. Maps: Nel de Vink (DeVink Mapdesign) Printed by Ipskamp Drukkers, Enschede ISSN: 1876-018x ISBN: 978-94-6173-720-5 © Harrie M. Leyten, 2015 For Clémence Contents Glossary vi Foreword xv 1. FROM IDOL TO ART:INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Two Epa masks in a missionary museum: A case study 1 1.2 From Idol to Art: Research question 11 1.3 Theoretical framework 15 1.4 Objects with power 29 1.5 Plan and structure of this book 35 2. IKENGA,MINKISI AND ASUMAN 40 2.1 Ikenga 40 2.2 Minkisi 49 2.3 Asuman 65 3. THE PRECOLONIAL PERIOD1850-1900 81 Introduction 81 3.1 The missionary perspective 83 3.2 The anthropological perspective 99 3.3 The curatorial perspective 116 4. THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1900-1950 139 Introduction 139 4.1 The missionary perspective 140 4.2 The anthropological perspective 164 4.2 The curatorial perspective 188 5. THE POST-COLONIAL PERIOD: 1950-2000 215 Introduction 215 5.1 The missionary perspective 216 5.2 The anthropological perspective 241 5.3 The curatorial perspective 263 6. EPILOGUE 284 Index of figures 291 Bibliography 314 v Glossary A. Abirifo (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) A herbalist (dunsini). Abonsam (Ashanti, Fanti, Ewe [Ghana]) Spirits (abonsam or trowo) that are both bene- ficial and malicious. Missionaries usually considered them to be evil spirits. Abosom (singular: Obosom) (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) Spirits that are venerated in public shrines and are attended by special priests (akomfo). Abuk (Dinka [Sudan]) A spirit, also called a ‘Power’ or ‘Divinity’ (Lienhardt 1961). Abuk is responsible for a good harvest. Abusua (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) One’s maternal family. Ashanti and Fanti have a mat- rilineal kinship system and kinship is determined by bloodline. Adinkra (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) A cotton cloth that is hand-printed or painted with symbols and is worn by men and women on special occasions. Aduro (singular: Oduro) (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) See Oduro. Afa (Ashanti, Fanti, Ewe [Ghana]) A spirit (abosom or tro) that is venerated in a cult and is housed in a public shrine. The cult was introduced and became popular at the beginning of the 20th century, especially in the Volta Region. Ajala (Yoruba [Nigeria]) One of the orisa responsible for the modelling and ‘baking’ of a person’s head (ori) before birth. Akala aka (Ibo [Nigeria]) Spiritual marks that are made on a child’s hands before birth as an indication of the pact made with its chi about its destiny in life. These marks al- so indicate the strength of its right hand (ikenga). Akomfo (singular: okomfo) (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) A priest responsible for a local shrine and its cult for an abosom. Akua (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) The name of a woman born on a Wednesday. Each child receives the name of the day in the week on which it is born. Akuaba (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) The child (ba) of a woman born on a Wednesday (Akua). According to legend, a woman born on a Wednesday who had problems get- ting pregnant was advised to commission a doll in the form of her ideal child and carry it in her wrapper as if it was a living child. Not long after that, she would be- come pregnant and have a baby girl. The Ashanti and Fanti, being matrilineal, prefer to have girls rather than boys. Akyi wadie (Ashanti [Ghana]) Hateful things such as gestures, types of behaviour or words that have been forbidden by an abosom and cause physical or spiritual damage to the agent if they are performed or uttered. The term is commonly translated as ‘ta- boo’. Ala (Ibo [Nigeria]) A manifestation of chi, the power that pervades the universe. Ala is the power that is manifest on earth. Alose (Ibo [Nigeria]) Powers that protect humans. Amandzee (Fanti [Ghana]) The question that opens a ceremonial greeting between two parties who are meeting after a long absence. Among the Fanti, the receiving party asks how the other has fared since they last met. The answer is always ‘bòkòo’ mean- vi ing ‘things are well’ (even if they are not). The Ashanti have the same ceremony but ask the question ‘amanayè’. Amuin (Baule [Ivory Coast]) The Baule believe that there are powers beneath the visible world that affect all life. They are called amuin and can be made visible through ob- jects, masks, figures and shrines. Their support in daily life is requested by every Baule. Asamando (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) The realm where the deceased live, especially those who are considered as the ancestors (nsamanfo). When a person dies, maternal blood (mogya) is transformed into saman, the maternal ancestor. Asantehene. (Ashanti [Ghana]) The King (ohene) of all the Ashanti. Until about 1700 AD, the Ashanti organized themselves in extended families, each with its own head and one family provided the chief of the village (ohene). Around 1700 AD, Osei Tu- tu received the golden stool (sikadua) from the sky in which he saw the ‘soul’ of the Ashanti nation and of which he became the overall chief or king. This form of gov- ernment still exists among the Ashanti. Ase (Yoruba [Nigeria]) Vital energy. The Yoruba believe that all cosmic forces possess ase, but some people possess more than others. Ase is a power that can cure but can also cause disease. It can be beneficial or malicious. Aseda (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) When someone needs a suman (an object with power, sometimes called ‘juju’), he approaches a person who possesses one. In return for a counter gift (aseda), the owner will make a suman. Asuman (singular: Suman) (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) See suman. Atingli (Ewe [Ghana]) A spirit tro that has its own public shrine in many villages is venerated in a cult and guarded by a local priest (tronua). B. Babalawo (Yoruba [Nigeria]) A priest in the Ifa cult. Bakisi (singular: nkisi) (Yombe, Vili [Congo]) Personified spirits that are called upon to cure specific diseases or problems. They are ‘embodied’ and made accessible in a material form called minkisi (singular: nkisi). Bakulu (Yombe [Congo]) Certain minkisi that are directed towards the identification of witches and adulterers (usually among relatives) are said to be imbued with ancestral spirits (bakulu) that give them additional power. Banganga (singular: nganga) See nganga. Basimbi (singular: simbi) (Yombe [Congo]) These are the dead who, unlike ancestors that take care of their descendants, have a relationship with the entire community and control local circumstances, such as epidemics, rainfall and harvests. Basiw (Bamana [Mali]) Objects with power, such as masks, statues and amulets, are believed to be imbued with nyama. Batakari kese (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) When a chief went to war, he was dressed in a ‘uniform’ covered with amulets or talismans (asuman). Today, a chief may wear this dress on ceremonial occasions, such as at his enstoolment. Bayi/bonsamkomfo (Ashanti, Fanti [Ghana]) A local priest (okomfo) who specializes in herbs and charms against witchcraft and is in charge of an abosom shrine. Bilongo (Yombe, Vili [Congo]) Often translated as ‘medicines’. Bilongo are herbs, leaves or parts of animals (claws, hair, skin or genitals) that provide protection or power to the person who uses them. Pouches attached to minkisi that contain bilongo vii are found on the figure’s stomach, head or back and are sometimes covered with a mirror. Biyombe (Yombe [Congo]) The language spoken by the Yombe. Blolo (Baule [Ivory Coast]) Sometimes translated as the ‘other world’ or the ‘here- before’. Blolo is the place/condition where the unborn live in duplicate until one half decides to be born into the world of men and women. Blolo bian (Baule [Ivory Coast]) Usually translated as ‘a woman’s spirit mate’. A blolo bian is the spiritual counterpart that stays behind in the blolo. The two halves make a pact about lifespan, career and particulars of their stay on earth. The woman will commission a statue of her blolo bian that she can consult if she encounters prob- lems. This figure is often an idealized male. Blolo bla (Baule [Ivory Coast]) A ‘man’s spirit mate’, like the blolo bian. Bo nun amuin (Baule [Ivory Coast]) Sacred masks belonging to a secret society. They are kept in the forest and may not be seen by the uninitiated and women. C. Cak (Nuer [Sudan]) Commonly translated as ‘creation’. The notion of cak contrasts with kwoth, which is described as Spirit. See kwoth. Chi (Ibo [Nigeria]) Although this was considered the name of the Supreme God for a long time, chi is a life essence attributed to the entire universe. Every human being (and also animals and inanimate things) has chi.