The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School The Department of Learning and Performance Systems LITERACY AND IDENTITY: REFLECTIONS OF SIX AFRICAN AMERICAN MALES IN AN ADULT LITERACY PROGRAM A Dissertation in Adult Education by Brendaly Elizabeth Drayton 2012 Brendaly Elizabeth Drayton Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2012 ii The dissertation of Brendaly Drayton was reviewed and approved* by the following: Esther S. Prins Associate Professor of Adult Education Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Ian Baptiste Associate Professor of Adult Education Gail Boldt Associate Professor of Education Language, Culture, and Society Patrick Shannon Professor of Education Language, Culture, and Society Ron Jackson Professor of African American Studies Professor of Media & Cinema Studies University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign Special Member Fred Schied Associate Professor of Adult Education In Charge of Graduate Programs in Adult Education *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT This multiple case study explored how the literate experiences of six African American men influenced their perceptions of and engagement with a community-based adult basic education and literacy (ABEL) program in a large northeastern city. The theoretical framework included a social practices view of literacy and a constructivist view of identity. Narrative analysis, specifically Riessman’s (2008) dialogic/performance approach, served as the analytic and interpretive lens. This study presents a socio-historical view of the men’s literacy experiences beginning with early schooling and concluding with their presence in the ABEL program. The findings indicate the men’s literacy experiences in early schooling, society, and the ABEL program influenced their perceptions of and engagement with the program. First, their early schooling and ABEL program experiences show that the social context greatly influenced the choices they made about academic literacy and learning. Second, the men participated in the program to fulfill social roles, to be considered qualified for unemployment, and to negate the deficit construction of their literate identities formed in early schooling. Third, their positive experiences in the program enhanced their self-concepts and encouraged them to believe in their abilities to succeed, thereby encouraging them to stay with the program. This research project contributes to adult basic education and literacy, literacy and identity, and K-12 scholarship by demonstrating the significant role identity played in the men’s literacy experiences and the choices they made about literacy development. It also adds to the nascent research on African American men, provides a nuanced view of their reasons for joining ABEL programs, demonstrates how literacy can inform the perception and enactment of gendered identities, and presents a counter-narrative to theories of African American men’s resistance to learning. The men’s narratives tell stories not only about themselves and their communities, but the society in which we live. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ .1 The Awakening ............................................................................................................... .1 Problem and purpose statement ....................................................................................... .3 Study focus and research questions ................................................................................. .9 Methods ........................................................................................................................... .9 Findings ........................................................................................................................... .10 Chapter 2 Literature Review ................................................................................................... 13 Identity ............................................................................................................................. 13 Identity and social identity theories.......................................................................... 14 Overview .......................................................................................................... 14 Racial identity ................................................................................................... 16 Gender identity ................................................................................................. 17 Literacy ........................................................................................................................... 19 Defining literacy ....................................................................................................... 20 Literacy and identity................................................................................................. 23 The academic biography and socio-historical context of African American males ........ 27 Socio-historical context ............................................................................................ 27 Early schooling experiences and academic achievement ......................................... 28 Stereotype threat ............................................................................................... 31 Adaptive and oppositional behaviors ............................................................... 32 Dropping out .................................................................................................... 34 African American men in ABEL programs ..................................................................... 35 Participation in ABEL programs...................................................................................... 37 Chapter summary ............................................................................................................. 39 Chapter 3 Research Design ..................................................................................................... 41 Research site .................................................................................................................... 43 Recruitment and sampling ............................................................................................... 44 Participants ....................................................................................................................... 46 Mike ............................................................................................................................ 47 Mr. E ........................................................................................................................... 48 Junior .......................................................................................................................... 48 Ice ............................................................................................................................... 49 Raymond ..................................................................................................................... 50 Roddy Rod .................................................................................................................. 51 Data collection .................................................................................................................. 52 Data analysis ..................................................................................................................... 54 v Defining narratives and discerning meaning .............................................................. 55 Defining narratives ........................................................................................... 55 Discerning identity ........................................................................................... 56 Linking institutional, cultural, and societal influences ..................................... 58 Researcher-narrator relationship ...................................................................................... 59 Data quality ...................................................................................................................... 61 Limitations of the study ................................................................................................... 63 Presentation of findings ................................................................................................... 64 Chapter 4 Early Schooling Experiences.................................................................................. 65 Low academic achievement ............................................................................................. 66 Residential mobility ................................................................................................. 66 Raymond .......................................................................................................... 67 Junior ................................................................................................................ 68 Early caregiving ......................................................................................................