Research Report – UCD-ITS-RR-17-04 The Potential to Build Current Natural Gas Infrastructure to Accommodate the Future Conversion to Near-Zero Transportation Technology March 2017 Amy Myers Jaffe Rosa Dominguez-Faus Joan Ogden Nathan C. Parker Daniel Scheitrum Zane McDonald, Yueyue Fan Tom Durbin George Karavalakis Justin Wilcock Marshall Miller Christopher Yang Institute of Transportation Studies ◦ University of California, Davis 1605 Tilia Street ◦ Davis, California 95616 PHONE (530) 752-6548 ◦ FAX (530) 752-6572 www.its.ucdavis.edu FINAL REPORT March 24, 2017 The Potential to Build Current Natural Gas Infrastructure to Accommodate the Future Conversion to Near-Zero Transportation Technology Contract No. 14-317 Amy Myers Jaffe, Principal Investigator STEPS Program, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis Disclaimer The statements and conclusions in this Report are those of the contractor and not necessarily those of the California Air Resources Board. The mention of commercial products, their source, or their use in connection with material reported herein is not to be construed as actual or implied endorsement of such products. This Report was submitted in fulfillment of contract 13-307, “The Feasibility of Renewable Natural Gas as a Large-Scale, Low Carbon Substitute” by the STEPS Program, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis under the sponsorship of the California Air Resources Board. Work was completed as of February 29, 2016 and updated as of March 2017. ii Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank our colleagues in research of alternative fuels and vehicles and more sustainable transportation at the California Air Resources Board for funding this contract and the staff with whom we engaged in the Research Division. The authors also thank the contributing team members of the STEPS program for their diligent and comprehensive work on this contract and report, including the following: Team Coordinators/Lead Researchers: Amy Myers Jaffe Rosa Dominguez-Faus Contributing Researchers: Joan Ogden Nathan Parker Daniel Scheitrum Zane McDonald Yueyue Fan Tom Durbin George Karavalakis Justin Wilcock Marshall Miller Christopher Yang iii Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................................................... viii Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................. x 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 16 2 Background ........................................................................................................................................................ 19 2.1 Natural Gas in Transportation: Literature Review ...................................................................... 19 2.2 Renewable Natural Gas in Transportation: Literature Review ............................................... 20 2.2.1 RNG Pathways ................................................................................................................................................. 20 2.2.2 RNG Costs .......................................................................................................................................................... 21 2.2.3 RNG Yields ......................................................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.4 Commercial RNG Examples ....................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.5 RNG synergies ................................................................................................................................................. 23 2.3 Hydrogen in Transportation: Literature Review .......................................................................... 24 2.3.1 Hydrogen Production ................................................................................................................................... 24 2.3.2 Hydrogen Storage and Delivery .............................................................................................................. 28 2.3.3 Hydrogen Infrastructure Strategies ...................................................................................................... 28 2.3.4 Current Status of Hydrogen Infrastructure development in California ................................ 29 2.3.5 Studies of Hydrogen and the Natural gas grid .................................................................................. 32 2.3.6 Synergies Between Hydrogen Fuel Cell and Natural Gas Vehicles .......................................... 33 3 Methods ............................................................................................................................................................... 34 3.1 Fossil natural gas infrastructure pathways .................................................................................... 34 3.2 Renewable natural gas supply pathways ........................................................................................ 36 3.3 Hydrogen Pathways ................................................................................................................................. 40 4 Results .................................................................................................................................................................. 44 4.1 RNG Compatibility with the Natural Gas System ........................................................................... 44 4.1.1 RNG Treatment and Purification ............................................................................................................ 47 4.1.2 Monitoring ........................................................................................................................................................ 51 4.1.3 RNG Potential in California: Upgrading and Injection Costs Assessment ............................. 52 4.1.4 The GHG benefit of blending NG with RNG ........................................................................................ 58 4.2 Hydrogen Compatibility with Natural Gas Infrastructure ........................................................ 61 4.2.1 Which transportation markets are most promising for natural gas and hydrogen? ....... 61 4.2.2 Hydrogen infrastructure supply pathways ........................................................................................ 62 4.2.3 infrastructure requirements and overlap for Hydrogen and NG Supply Pathways ......... 63 4.2.4 Compatibility of CNG refueling station equipment with hydrogen ......................................... 65 4.2.5 Blending hydrogen with natural gas ..................................................................................................... 67 4.2.6 Methanation or “E-gas”: Production of Methane from CO2 and Renewable Hydrogen . 76 4.3 Scenarios for Growth: Implications for Natural Gas as a Bridge to Hydrogen ................... 77 5 Summary and Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 81 6 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................................... 83 7 Glossary of Terms ............................................................................................................................................ 85 8 Appendix A: RNG compatibility with natural gas infrastructure ................................................ 87 9 References ....................................................................................................................................................... 102 iv List of Figures Figure 1. CNG (left) and LNG (right) stations in California. 17 Figure 2. Natural Gas Fueling Stations in California 2009-2014. 20 Figure 3. Pathways to hydrogen 24 Figure 4. Six fuel supply pathways for hydrogen and hydrogen blends derived from natural gas. 26 Figure 5. Delivered cost of hydrogen transportation fuel from various pathways. 27 Figure 6. Locations (top) and status (bottom) of hydrogen refueling stations in California. In 31 stations, compressed hydrogen is delivered by truck; 7 have liquid hydrogen delivered by truck; 7 onsite electrolysis; 2 onsite steam methane reforming; 1 hydrogen pipeline delivery. 30 Figure 7. CARB projections for hydrogen fuel cell vehicle populations (top) and numbers of stations (bottom) in California (CEC/CARB Joint report 2015). 31 Figure 8. Renewable Hydrogen Requirements in California under SB1505. 32 Figure 9. LNG supply pathways 34 Figure 10. CNG supply pathway 35 Figure 11. CNG Time fill station configuration. 35 Figure 12. RNG Sites compared to trucking corridor 37 Figure 13. Public CNG and LNG locations in California. 38 Figure 14. Centralized and onsite hydrogen infrastructure pathways for providing hydrogen transportation fuel. 40 Figure 15. Near Term and Long Term Pathways for Hydrogen Production and Delivery to Vehicles. (It is also possible to deliver hydrogen via compressed gas truck.) 41 Figure 16a. Hydrogen refueling station with onsite steam methane reforming. 42 Figure 17. Schematic of RNG production from feedstock through to end use. 51 Figure 18.