LANDSCAPE AESTHETICS, TOURISM, AND CHANGE: CASE STUDIES IN NEPAL BY JHARNA JOSHI A thesis Submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington In fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2019 ABSTRACT This research explores how residents and tourists perceive landscape aesthetics in tourism-based landscapes that are continuously changing. Three case study sites in Nepal are examined. Landscapes are dynamic, multifunctional and an amalgamation of natural and human-made components that are constantly evolving, both naturally and due to human activities. Landscape aesthetics, related to experiences within and with multiple dimensions of landscape that engage all human senses, are perceived differently by different groups of people and have implications for their preservation and modification. Tourism, an integral part of contemporary society, reflects and influences changes in society and the landscape. The interrelationships amongst landscapes, change, perceptions and tourism are complex with paradoxical tensions that arise from their interconnections and interdependence. Researchers have studied and interpreted the interrelationship between landscape and tourism from different perspectives that are sometimes contradictory. The literature is fragmented with similar aspects of the landscape-tourism relationship described and conceptualized using different terminologies (landscapes, cultural landscapes, environment, place, space, nature) and with an absence of an integrated approach and a holistic concept of landscape. This research addresses this fragmentation and multiple interpretations to build an integrated approach of landscape taken as a holistic entity, where the natural, cultural, social and economic dimensions, including tourism, interact, integrate and overlap. This study adds a new perspective by looking closely at landscape aesthetics and its relation to change and tourism incorporating the perspectives of both residents and tourists. This research adopts a qualitative methodology using case studies in three geographically, culturally and contextually different locations in Nepal (Ghandruk, Bandipur and Sauraha). A multi-layered approach is used to explore the dynamic nature of landscape and nonlinear drivers of change that add layers and dimensions to landscape aesthetics and how it is perceived by different residents and tourists, both domestic and international. This research applies an interpretivist paradigm using in-depth interviews with photo-elicitation (incorporating past and repeat photographs with in-situ interviews), field observations and visual data analysis. i Different themes emerged when the data were analysed but the overarching one was the often-antagonistic relationship between conservation and development. Participatory conservation and local development were key in Ghandruk, while the emphasis was on built heritage and expansion in Bandipur with the national park and indigenous Tharu traditions clashing with current landscape use in Sauraha. Key findings also indicate that the residents perceive landscape aesthetics holistically incorporating multiple dimensions that include traditions, culture, food, occupation and historical associations as well as contemporary societal changes and modern conveniences interwoven into their everyday landscapes. The tourists, with their fleeting presence, focus on the visual aesthetics, engaging with the non-material values of landscapes through different activities and are often accommodating of landscape changes perceived as improvements based on their background and worldview. The pace of change in the present context of globalisation influences the perceptions of both tourists and residents that are reflected in the landscapes and landscape aesthetics. In order to effectively manage landscape change and tourism development, it is pertinent to understand drivers of change and the society within a holistic concept of landscape. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This page is not enough or even the right platform to thank all the people that I have crossed paths with who have inspired me since the seeds of this thesis were planted somewhere in the many conversations with friends and colleagues I had while working in Nepal. Nevertheless, there are some people I would like to mention here who have helped to nurture the seed and bring this thesis to completion. Firstly, I would like to thank my excellent supervisory team, Professor Karen Smith, Professor Adam Weaver and Dr Eerang Park for enduring this journey with me. You have patiently listened to me, guided me and helped me manoeuvre through this research that at times seemed overwhelming. Your sound advice and calm encouragement kept me focussed on the end goal. It is a pleasure and a privilege to have such a committed supervisory team and I have learned a lot from you. I would also like to thank all the staff members and colleagues at SOM and VUW who have offered support and encouragement. I am also indebted to VUW for the financial support through the completion scholarship and research funding. A special thank you to Megan Key for the wonderful administrative support. A big thank you and best wishes to all my PhD colleagues and friends for making this journey pleasant. I am grateful to all the individuals that I interviewed and had conversations with, who took time from work and leisure to talk about landscape and tourism. This thesis is based on what they shared with me and is invaluable to this research. A special thank you to Douglas Hall for providing the high-quality photographs from the Peace Corps Nepal Photo Project. I also have to thank Bais Gurung and Chij Kumar Shrestha for providing a home and place to work in Bandipur. A special thank you to my Wellington family, Mary Stacey, Stuart and Alison Lavin for making us feel at home from day one. Knowing your home was always available was invaluable to enable me to focus on completing this thesis. Most importantly, thank you to my parents, Amir and Saroj Joshi, and family, especially, Mamata, Santosh, Sushil, Wenting, Gaurav, Kshitij, Sawan, and Ina for your love and support. iii This thesis is for my partner, Manoj, without whom this project would not have started, let alone be completed. Words cannot express how grateful I am. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iii 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Background to the study .................................................................................... 2 1.2. Research questions ............................................................................................. 7 1.3. Research philosophy and methodology ............................................................. 8 1.4. Research context: Ghandruk, Bandipur and Sauraha in Nepal ........................ 10 1.5. Chapter outline ................................................................................................. 15 2. Literature review ..................................................................................................... 17 2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 17 2.2. Landscape and tourism .................................................................................... 18 2.2.1. Landscape and cultural landscape ............................................................ 19 2.2.2. Landscapes and tourism ........................................................................... 22 2.2.3. Different landscape perceptions: residents and tourists ........................... 26 2.3. Perceptions of landscape aesthetics ................................................................. 29 2.3.1. Approaches to landscape aesthetics.......................................................... 30 2.3.2. Perceptions of landscape aesthetics and tourism ...................................... 32 2.4. Drivers of changing landscapes ....................................................................... 36 2.4.1. Conservation policies and landscapes ...................................................... 37 2.4.2. Urbanisation, globalisation and landscape change ................................... 41 2.4.3. Tourism and landscape change ................................................................. 44 2.5. Landscapes – change – perceptions: a conceptual framework ........................ 47 2.6. Tourism research in Nepal: an overview ......................................................... 50 2.6.1. Tourism, conservation, and landscape ...................................................... 50 2.6.2. Recent research: Conservation, community and tourism ......................... 53 2.6.3. Landscape change and tourism ................................................................. 54 2.7. Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 57 3. Methodology and research strategies ..................................................................... 58 3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 58 3.2. Identifying the