Learning Theories An Educational Perspective Sixth Edition Dale H. Schunk The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Vice President/Editor in Chief: Paul Smith Editorial Assistant: Matthew Buchholz Marketing Manager: Joanna Sabella Managing Editor: Central Publishing Project Manager: Laura Messerly Full-Service Project Management: Sudeshna Nandy/Aptara®, Inc. Operations Specialist: Laura Messerly Composition: Aptara®, Inc. 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To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 501 Boylston Street, Boston, MA, 02116, or email [email protected]. Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Schunk, Dale H. Learning theories : an educational perspective / Dale H. Schunk.—6th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-707195-1 ISBN-10: 0-13-707195-7 1. Learning. 2. Cognition. 3. Learning, Psychology of. I. Title. LB1060.S37 2012 370.15'23—dc22 2010048468 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-10: 0-13-707195-7 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-707195-1 Dedication To Barry Zimmerman, mentor, colleague, and friend Brief Contents 1 Introduction to the Study of Learning 1 2 Neuroscience of Learning 29 3 Behaviorism 71 4 Social Cognitive Theory 117 5 Information Processing Theory 163 6 Constructivism 228 7 Cognitive Learning Processes 278 8 Motivation 345 9 Self-Regulation 399 10 Development 444 Glossary 489 References 501 Author Index 539 Subject Index 550 iv Contents Three Learning Scenarios 25 1 Introduction to the Study of Kathy Stone’s Third-grade Class 25 Learning 1 Jim Marshall’s U.S. History Class 26 Gina Brown’s Educational Psychology Learning Defined 3 Class 26 Precursors of Modern Learning Summary 27 Theories 4 Further Reading 28 Learning Theory and Philosophy 5 Beginnings of the Psychological Study of Learning 7 Structuralism and Functionalism 8 2 Neuroscience of Learning Theory and Learning 29 Research 10 Organization and Structures 31 Functions of Theory 10 Neural Organization 32 Conducting Research 11 Brain Structures 33 Assessment of Learning 14 Localization and Interconnections 37 Direct Observations 14 Brain Research Methods 39 Written Responses 15 Neurophysiology of Learning 43 Oral Responses 16 Information Processing System 43 Ratings by Others 16 Memory Networks 46 Self-reports 18 Language Learning 49 Relation of Learning and Brain Development 50 Instruction 18 Influential Factors 50 Historical Perspective 18 Phases of Development 51 Instructional Commonalities 19 Critical Periods 52 Integration of Theory and Practice 20 Language Development 55 Critical Issues for Learning Motivation and Emotions 58 Theories 21 Motivation 58 How Does Learning Occur? 22 Emotions 60 What is the Role of Memory? 23 Instructional Applications 62 What is the Role of Motivation? 23 Relevance of Brain Research 62 How Does Transfer Occur? 24 Educational Issues 63 Which Processes are Involved in Brain-based Educational Practices 64 Self-regulation? 24 What are the Implications for Summary 67 Instruction? 25 Further Reading 70 v vi Contents Modeling Processes 123 3 Behaviorism 71 Theories of Imitation 123 Connectionism 73 Functions of Modeling 125 Trial-and-error Learning 73 Cognitive Skill Learning 129 Laws of Exercise and Effect 74 Motor Skill Learning 131 Other Principles 75 Influences on Learning and Revisions to Thorndike’s Theory 75 Performance 133 Thorndike and Education 76 Developmental Status of Learners 133 Classical Conditioning 78 Model Prestige and Competence 134 Basic Processes 79 Vicarious Consequences to Informational Variables 81 Models 135 Biological Influences 81 Motivational Processes 138 Conditioned Emotional Reactions 82 Goals 138 Contiguous Conditioning 84 Outcome Expectations 143 Acts and Movements 84 Values 145 Associative Strength 84 Self-Efficacy 146 Rewards and Punishments 85 Conceptual Overview 146 Habit Formation and Change 85 Self-efficacy in Achievement Operant Conditioning 88 Situations 147 Conceptual Framework 89 Models and Self-efficacy 149 Basic Processes 89 Motor Skills 152 Behavioral Change 98 Instructional Self-efficacy 153 Behavior Modification 100 Health and Therapeutic Activities 154 Self-regulation 102 Instructional Applications 156 Instructional Applications 102 Models 157 Behavioral Objectives 103 Self-efficacy 157 Learning Time 105 Worked Examples 158 Mastery Learning 107 Tutoring and Mentoring 158 Programmed Instruction 109 Summary 159 Contingency Contracts 112 Further Reading 162 Summary 114 Further Reading 116 5 Information Processing Theory 163 4 Social Cognitive Information Processing System 165 Theory 117 Assumptions 165 Conceptual Framework for Two-store (dual) Memory Model 165 Learning 119 Alternatives to the Two-store Model 168 Reciprocal Interactions 119 Attention 171 Enactive and Vicarious Learning 119 Theories of Attention 171 Learning and Performance 122 Attention and Learning 172 Self-regulation 122 Attention and Reading 174 Contents vii Perception 175 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 240 Gestalt Theory 175 Background 241 Sensory Registers 178 Basic Principles 242 LTM Comparisons 179 Zone of Proximal Development 243 Two-Store Memory Model 180 Applications 245 Verbal Learning 181 Critique 247 Short-term (working) Memory 183 Private Speech and Socially Mediated Long-term Memory 184 Learning 248 Influences on Encoding 187 Private Speech 248 Long-Term Memory: Storage 191 Verbalization and Achievement 249 Propositions 191 Socially Mediated Learning 251 Storage of Knowledge 191 Self-regulation 252 Production Systems and Connectionist Motivation 254 Models 196 Contextual Factors 254 Long-Term Memory: Retrieval and Implicit Theories 256 Forgetting 200 Teachers’ Expectations 258 Retrieval 200 Constructivist Learning Language Comprehension 204 Environments 261 Forgetting 209 Key Features 261 Mental Imagery 213 APA Learner-Centered Principles 263 Representation of Spatial Information 213 Instructional Applications 265 Imagery in LTM 216 Discovery Learning 266 Individual Differences 217 Inquiry Teaching 268 Instructional Applications 217 Peer-assisted Learning 269 Advance Organizers 218 Discussions and Debates 271 Conditions of Learning 219 Reflective Teaching 271 Cognitive Load 223 Summary 274 Summary 224 Further Reading 276 Further Reading 227 7 Cognitive Learning 6 Constructivism 228 Processes 278 Constructivism: Assumptions and Skill Acquisition 280 Perspectives 230 General and Specific Skills 280 Overview 230 Novice-to-expert Research Perspectives 232 Methodology 281 Situated Cognition 233 Expert-novice Differences in Contributions and Applications 234 Science 283 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Conditional Knowledge and Development 236 Metacognition 284 Developmental Processes 236 Conditional Knowledge 285 Implications for Instruction 239 Metacognition and Learning 286 viii Contents Variables Influencing Cognitive Consistency Theory 349 Metacognition 288 Humanistic Theory 351 Metacognition and Behavior 289 Model of Motivated Learning 356 Metacognition and Reading 290 Pretask 357 Concept Learning 292 During Task 357 The Nature of Concepts 292 Posttask 358 Concept Attainment 294 Achievement Motivation 358 Teaching of Concepts 295 Expectancy-value Theory 359 Motivational Processes 298 Familial Influences 361 Problem Solving 299 Contemporary Model of Achievement Historical Influences 299 Motivation 362 Heuristics 302 Self-worth Theory 364 Problem-Solving Strategies 304 Task and Ego Involvement 366 Problem Solving and Learning 309 Attribution Theory 366 Experts and Novices 310 Locus of Control 367 Reasoning 311 Naïve Analysis of Action 367 Implications for Instruction 315 Attribution Theory of Transfer 317 Achievement 368 Historical Views 317 Social Cognitive Theory 371 Activation of Knowledge in Goals and Expectations 372 Memory 318 Social Comparison 372 Types of Transfer 319 Strategy Transfer 321 Goal Theory 374 Teaching for Transfer 322 Goal Orientations 376 Technology and Instruction 324 Conceptions of Ability 379 Computer-based Learning Perceived Control 380 Environments 325 Control Beliefs 380 Distance Learning 328 Learned Helplessness 381 Future Directions 330 Students with Learning Problems 382 Instructional Applications 332 Self-Concept 383 Worked Examples 332 Dimensions and Development 383 Writing 334 Self-concept and Learning 385 Mathematics 337 Intrinsic motivation 386 Summary 342 Theoretical Perspectives 386 Further Reading 344 Overjustification and Reward 389 Instructional Applications 392 Achievement Motivation Training 392 8 Motivation 345 Attribution