Originalni naučni rad (ONR) 20: (2016) 31–51 UDK Marija Antić1 305-055.2(497) 28:316.722 FEMINIST IRANIAN CINEMA: THE COUNTER-CINEMA OF ABBAS KIAROSTAMI AND FEMALE SPECTATORSHIP ABSTRACT Th e quintessential characteristic of Iranian art fi lm is its heavy politicization, achieved by addressing social and women’s issues. Stylistically, infl uenced by distinctive Persian literary tradition, New Iranian Cinema is known for blurring lines between documentary and fi ction, thus exploring new fi lm forms and genres. Th is paper primarily calls into question the veiling discourse and censorship of Islamic government as an unsuspecting instrument of enhancing the authentic style of fi lm authors, aft er which it continues with an examination of the role of aesthetics in terms of redefi ning the politics of gender representation in fi lm and the process of spectatorship. Th is article is mostly an homage to Abbas Kiarostami, a world-renowned Iranian director, who passed away recently. His cinematic style will be examined through the prism of representational politics of feminist fi lm theory. Specifi cally, two of his fi lms will be analyzed, a fi lm Ten (2002) which is completely shot in the inside of a car, as a woman picks up passengers and drives them through Tehran, and another one, Shirin (2008), a fi lm which consists of many close-ups of actresses watching a fi lm scene, as a unique way of representing female spectatorship and the process of identifi cation with the images on screen. Keywords: New Iranian Cinema, hejab, censorship, Kiarostami, counter-cinema, gender, representation, female gaze 1 ver since the 1990’s, when the first public in western countries had a Echance to see artworks of quite exceptional Iranian post-revolutionary cinema, Iran’s films have gathered much of the international interest, not just by winning prizes at renowned film festivals, but also by exemplifying stylistically unusual and yet visually stunning pieces of cinema. Unfortunately, in July this year, the best known Iranian director Abbas Kiarostami passed 1 E-mail: [email protected] 32 vol. 20: 2016 away, at the age of 66. He was one of the pioneers of the new-wave cinema in Iran, and until this day his cinematic aesthetics has left its trademark not only on Iranian film but the history of cinema, as well. Still, in order to understand how social and political conditions in modern Iran have shaped its cinema (and vice versa), especially towards gender practices, female sexuality, and spectatorship, it is of the utmost importance to give a general insight into the turbulent history of Islamic Republic of Iran as we know it today. But in order to do so, we must deal with certain stereotypes regarding Iranian social and cultural politics. It has widely popularized the image of Iran as a country with many restrictions and brutal violations of fundamental human rights due to its prevailing religious influence on every aspect of society. In that respect, many consider that feminism is “bound to be politically constrained by Islamic religious and socio-cultural context” (Zeydabadi-Nejad 2010, 105). Nonetheless, in the field of film theory, paradoxically, and even unintentionally, Islamic revolution, mostly by inducing strict hejab politics towards appearance of women in public and because of its heavy censorship, especially in terms of women’s representation on screen, has brought out the necessity of exploring new ways of filming, even to the level of reinventing the film itself. SHORT HISTORY OF NEW IRANIAN CINEMA AND THE VEILING DISCOURSE In the prerevolutionary period, from the 1950’s to the Islamic revolution, under the reign of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was supportive of the influence of western visual and cinematic culture, Cinema el Farsi (Persian cinema) was popularized amongst Iranian public. Those films featured erotically charged, urban stories of men and women acting freely from any religious or societal rules, drinking lavishly at parties and behaving recklessly. The main characteristic of this cinema was its dominance of “male gaze”2. At least according to Naficy, actresses of film-e Farsi usually appeared 2 A very influential concept, not only in the feminist film theory, but also in the broader field of media and visual art in general; the male gaze implies specific way of positioning the camera which puts the spectator M. Antić: Feminist Iranian Cinema: Th e Counter-Cinema of Abbas Kiarostami and Female Spectatorship 33 “in lightweight roles in which they danced and sang, sometimes, in cafes and cabarets (so as) a leering, voyeuristic, male-driven camera gaze filmed their performances, which either isolated their legs, breasts, and faces into fragmented fetish objects” (Naficy 2011, 207). The representation of women and their sexuality was one of the main concerns of the revolutionary Islamic establishment. In fact, much alike feminist film theory in the same period, sexual objectification of woman on the screen became the focal point on the agenda of the Islamic government. The scenes illustrating female body, direct male gaze or heterosexual desire were to be forbidden from then on. Instead, women should be head-scarfed and wearing loose clothing to hide the silhouette of their body line. Joan Copjec, an influential feminist film theorist, analyses this practice in her essay “The Object-Gaze: Shame, Hejab, Cinema” by claiming that “hejab seems to be motivated by the belief that there is something about women that can never be covered up enough, and thus the task of veiling is buttressed by architectural design and rigid social protocols that further protect women from exposure” (Copjec 2006, 11–12). The Islamic code of modesty and chastity is represented by compulsory veiling since women are obliged to wear a hejab in the presence of unknown men, but not in domestic sphere when surrounded by male relatives or other women. The very hejab set of rules has highlighted already existing divide between public and private, and, cinema, belonging to the public sphere, has become painfully aware of its spectatorship, making it impossible to succumb to the filmic code of realistic representation dominant in mainstream film, thus having no other option but betraying the conventional principle of transparency typical for Hollywood cinema production (Naficy 1994, 134). All these are the general outlines leading to the reasons of why Iranian art film has become such an impressive example of alternative film and an in the perspective of a heterosexual male, so that the pleasure of looking is achieved by identifying with a male protagonist whereas a female on screen is in passive position of being an object of male desire. This concept is attributed to Laura Mulvey, a feminist film theorist, who used it for the first time in her ground-breaking essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” published in Screen journal in 1975 (cf. Mulvey 1975). 34 vol. 20: 2016 outstanding specimen of national cinema. Drawing from the long tradition of Persian poetry, using subtle means of allegory and symbols in story-telling as indirect ways of communicating the message, along with following the main idea that all artistic endeavors are to be overtly political, by addressing important and pressing social issues, are the key components that have made Iranian cinema so thematically and visually distinctive. ISLAMIC CENSORSHIP AND POLITICS OF LOOKING In the earliest period of the Islamic revolution, as cinema was still perceived as the product of “westoxication” (Gharbzadegi),3 film theaters were massively burned throughout the country. However, as soon as Ayatollah Khomeini, the spiritual leader of Iranian revolution, in his first public speech upon his arrival in Iran spoke in defense of cinema, and even praised the political potential of such a medium, mainly because of its “capacity to influence society” (Zeydabadi-Nejad 2010, 5), the actions toward purification of westernization were abandoned to some extent, and ironically, cinema became the most popular art form within Iranian public and, more importantly, along with Persian poetry, one of the most influential socio-cultural medium. Still, every new film project has to be accepted by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance and pass its censorship. As a result, many of the acknowledged Iranian directors (like in the controversial cases of Jafar Panahi and Tahmineh Milani) were severely punished for making films that did not coincide with the hejab’s rule of modesty and Islamic codes of representation. Even though this practice is in huge discrepancy with the western principle and right to free expression, Hamid Naficy argues the repressive system of interrogation and molesting film directors by putting them in jail for producing films that are in conflict with the convictions of Islamic establishment has the counter-effect leading to a paradox, as it only means that they have been heard and that their art has succeeded to convey 3 Film production in Iran is one of the strictly regulated activities by Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, which explicitly forbade using even the smallest details revealing the western influence in films - such as the wearing of ties or bow ties, smoking of cigarettes, drinking of alcohol, etc. Cf. Copjec 2006. M. Antić: Feminist Iranian Cinema: Th e Counter-Cinema of Abbas Kiarostami and Female Spectatorship 35 the message to the audience (Naficy 2001, 11). In fact, the system of censorship forces filmmakers to develop authentic authorship, and even more so, offers them an opportunity for creating a space of potential social transformation and making an impact by working under the totalitarian regime, even though they are being punished for it (ibid.). In this regard, the role of using a rather indirect language of allegory (as stylistic figure borrowed from rich Persian literary tradition) is often discussed as one of the potent means of avoiding censorship.