Swedish Research on APPENDICESWORK ORGANIZATION AN EVALUATION COVERING THE PERIOD 2007–2013 By: Arnold B. Bakker Silvia Gherardi Gudela Grote Russell Lansbury Peter Pawlowsky Robert A. Roe Appendices A. From productivity to 54 C. Description of research 79 complexity – history of groups and researchers Swedish Work Organization research D. Listing of key papers 2007-2013 124 B. Survey of Work Organization research 70 submitted to Forte as PDF-files by Swedish researchers participating 1. The instrument and procedure 70 in the survey 2. Participation in surveys (sample, 70 E. PhD theses 141 response rate, representativeness) F. Bibliometric analysis 142 3. Submission of publications 71 and interviews G. Listing of interviews 148 4. Overview of replies to survey 71 1. Social partners and researchers 148 5. Survey instrument 74 2. Workplaces visited 149 52 SWEDISH RESEARCH ON WORK ORGANIZATION 53 A. FROM PRODUCTIVITY TO COMPLEXITY – HISTORY OF SWEDISH WORK ORGANIZATION RESEARCH PAPER WRITTEN BY JAN FORSLIN ET AL. The aim of this paper is to provide a background of have been highly influential for the volume, objec- the research in Sweden in the field of work organiza- tives, forms and methods of the research in this area. tion after the Second World War. It does not aspire The organization of work has been a central intel- to give a full account, only a tentative description of lectual and practical theme ever since dawn of the its major features. One should regard this contribu- industrial era. Benjamin Franklin formed his slogan tion as a description of the emergence on a new re- ”Time is Money” in 1748 and thereby set the script for search field with new methodological approaches and the industrial age. Three decades later, Adam Smith a cross-disciplinary character and its development dedicated chapter one in his Wealth of Nations to divi- into a mature research area. Details and annotation sion of labor as an economic principle. A division, in a on persons, publications etc. are more frequent from different sense than the traditional trades, was seen as the early years of development and much sparser from a necessary means for increased productivity of an of- later years with its dramatically increased research ten unskilled, even illiterate labor. He also meant that volumes. This is thus not a bibliographic compilation, breaking down the value-adding chain in small pieces specific references are not many and either concerned would enhance a gainful use of technical improve- with works that stand out as seminal or work that are, ments and their development. Thus technology and still arbitrary, examples of a specific phenomenon. A work organization went hand in hand already in the more complete picture is provided in the evaluation early visions and Smith turned out to be dramatically bibliography. Also, a recent overview of Abrahamsson correct. Splitting the work process and specialization & Johansson (2013) of the development of working have been the predominating and economically suc- life research and policy in Sweden is helpful. cessful logic in industry ever since, with repercussions The research is seen here as to fall within two major also on the view of work efficiency in general. The idea traditions. One is concerned with the design of work has improved productivity dramatically and likewise and its organization (and management). Work is de- promoted a dramatic technical development. Division fined here as a value adding process, where humans of labor is so far still one of the main principles in not interact with technology. This is the classic engineer- only liberal economies – but of course a division can ing perspective, productivity having been the prime be made in many different ways. concern. The other is the social perspective, e.g. social However, another discourse is the later critique of the and human consequences of a given type of organization industrial system initiated by Engels and Marx in the of work. Design and evaluation of work respective- mid 1880’s. Alienating work and proletarization of the ly emerged from the two originally widely separat- work force became central elements in the socialist ed R&D traditions, but have gradually merged into view on the division of labor in a capitalistic world. often multidisciplinary approaches. In the individual The sometimes fateful debate since then has rough- case there are elements of both, but one could maybe ly formulated oscillated between two basic positions: talk of a figure-ground relationship between the two division of labor creates either wealth and health or perspectives. The assumption here is, that in both tra- exploitation and alienation of labor. Various expres- ditions it is worthwhile to understand the background sions of these two positions have ever since been an of interplay between historical, economic, social, and important element in the research and debate on work political context, which in at least in the Swedish case organization, also in Sweden. 54 SWEDISH RESEARCH ON WORK ORGANIZATION A MIDDLE WAY? and of the large scale training of work study staff (Gi- Already after the First World War had a rationali- ertz, 1981) respectively. zation movement, emerging from Frederick Taylor’s Work study technique became an important subject scientific management of work (SM), spread rapidly in technical universities, but it was mainly taught at from the US also in the relatively young and inno- various institutes, often in evening classes. Hence it vative Swedish industry. The ideas of rationalization became a valuable opportunity for ambitious work- seemed to have appealed to the Swedish mentality; ers to take the symbolically loaded step from blue to however, the ”modernization” also met resentment white collar positions. Often this teaching took place and conflicts. Still, it was moderation, that made Swe- after full time working hours, six days week, with den the example for the American Marquis Childs week-ends for reading and exercise. Support from in his work from 1936 Sweden the Middle Way. Along the employers was normally small, and this career this line a national union-employer agreement from step was taken at considerable hardship in many cas- 1938 to co-operate on productivity enhancing meas- es. When ideas of a different work organization were ures as a basis for modernization of the economy, the proposed later by academic researchers, resentment so called Saltsjöbads-avtalet (named after the resort and resistance raised among the practically oriented where it was negotiated). This was to become a pro- work study staff. Support from this group of techni- found asset for the future that developed after WWII. cians for the experiments, that would develop later, The political leadership was profound in this develop- was not self-evident. However, once the new ideas ment. The social-democratic party was quite aware of were accepted, this group would prove highly valuable the importance of increased productivity for realiza- with its thorough knowledge of work processes and tion of the ”well-fare state”, also at the price of an al- machinery and an innovative mind (e.g. Forslin, Thu- ienating work. An article by Tage Erlander, one of the lestedt & Andersson, 1985). architects to be of the Swedish ”Folkhem”, in Svensk Also trade unions and the employers’ organizations Uppslagsbok (a Swedish encyclopedia) from 1934 un- 13 developed a competence in the field, as negotiations der ”division of work” is thus prophetic : were connected to this body of knowledge and its de- ”Especially within science and industry division velopment. The shared view on modern work organ- of work and ... specialization are unavoidably ization meant production lines and highly restricted, necessary. Within industry this development means, repetitive and simplified tasks. The social partners that each worker executes only a small part of the were carriers of mainly the same basic philosophy and product ... Of course the division of labor has some collaborated to institutionalize the new ideas. The ele- drawbacks. Specialization can imply machine like ments in a work organization for mass production can and soul-destroying work. Through division of work, be summarized as a system of four elements: standard- however, productivity is so much improved, that the ization, mechanization, fragmentation, and bureaucra- worker can have enough freedom from work to have tization resting on the idea of mass-production. opportunity to experience enough variety outside Productivity did increase dramatically, putting Swe- work”. (Translated here from Swedish) den among the leading nations during the 1950’s and T. E-r. 60’s – as did real wages. Negotiations, dealt not only with wages though, but also opened for enlarged un- ALIENATION AND COMPENSATION ion influence, offered a more ”generous” personnel As reflected in the quotation above, modern work or- policy, and improved working conditions as a coun- ganization in production meant a highly divided work terbalance to the higher productivity and accompany- process on the shop floor, with simple, repetitive tasks ing work strain. National union-employer agreements in short work cycles at the expense of craftsmanship. were reached – and in return no strikes. More qualified tasks were separated from the manu- A SOCIAL SET BACK al work and centralized to powerful staff functions, which grew into a self-confident techno-bureaucracy. Soon after the Second World War the Swedish econ- This concept was systematically adopted on a broad omy entered, contrary to expectations, a period of scale in Sweden. Two dissertations give a well-docu- unprecedented strength and longevity. In particular mented account of this development (De Geer, 1978) products from the mechanical industry, shipyards 13 Incidentally, Erlander was to become the prime minister of Sweden some ten years later (1946- 1969). 55 included, were in high demand internationally. An alienation as a price for improved economic living anticipated unemployment soon turned into its oppo- standard was challenged.