University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Department of Portuguese MASCULINITY IN CARIOCA CARNAVAL DRUMMING A Thesis in Portuguese Studies by Gregory M. Dillon © 2013 Gregory M. Dillon Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts January 2013 I grant the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth the non-exclusive right to use the work for the purpose of making single copies of the work available to the public on a not- for-profit basis if the University’s circulating copy is lost or destroyed. ______________________________________ Gregory M. Dillon Date___________________________________ We approve the thesis of Gregory M. Dillon Date of Signature ___________________________________________ __________________ Dário Borim Associate Professor and Chairperson Department of Portuguese Thesis Advisor ___________________________________________ __________________ Anna Klobucka Professor of Portuguese Thesis Committee ___________________________________________ __________________ Christopher Larkosh Assistant Professor of Portuguese Thesis Committee ___________________________________________ __________________ Victor Mendes Graduate Program Director Department of Portuguese ___________________________________________ __________________ Jeannette E. Riley Interim Dean, College of Arts and Sciences ___________________________________________ __________________ Alex Fowler Associate Provost for Graduate Studies and Research Development Abstract Masculinity in Carioca Carnaval Drumming by Gregory M. Dillon Despite the considerable level of male participation in the Rio de Janeiro samba school parade, the majority of research regarding sexuality in carnaval focuses on female dancers and femininity. The bateria, or percussion section, demonstrates how masculine constructions of sexuality are performed in the context of the Brazilian pre-Lenten festival. Sexist attitudes have remained prevalent in samba school baterias, and continue to prevent women from participating as drummers even in recent times. This is likely due to the essentialist gender roles preserved in Afro-Brazilian culture, which hold drumming as masculine and dancing as feminine. By comparing the samba school ritual to the spirit possession ritual, I trace the drummer/dancer gender roles to the African traditions preserved in Afro-Brazilian religion. In addition, by placing iconic Brazilian figures in a sexual context, I analyze the roles of and relationships between ritual participants in the context of their respective time period in order to clarify the implications of performing masculinity through drumming in Afro-Brazilian religion as opposed to carioca carnaval. During the colonial period, African descendants were pushed to the margins of society by a hegemonic masculinity that rejected their sexual identity. The terreiro of Afro-Brazilian religion provided them with a space to affirm a sexual identity in accordance with the obligatory gender roles of African tradition. In the spirit possession iii ritual, drummers called upon African gods to “mount” dancers. This ceremony of gender role dramatization, which promoted popular conceptions of the powerful male drummer and submissive female dancer, constituted a healing process and return to African identity. While the ritual preserved inequitable gender roles, it allowed mixed-race women to escape the image of the promiscuous and beguiling mulata promoted in masculinist literature. The rise of the Vargas administration in Brazil represented a shift in hegemonic masculinity, and as a result, a transformation in gender relations. The promotion of Afro- Brazilian culture as characteristic of national identity, as well as the state co-option of samba schools, resulted in a dramatization ritual with disparate implications for its participants. The samba school parade reinforces drummer/dancer gender roles, but in a fashion that promotes the values underpinning patriarchy and exploits mixed-race women by lionizing the mulata figure of masculinist literature. In this ritual, the rhythms of bateria drummers instigate scantily clad women to dance in a licentious manner embodying the mulata. While this ceremony also constitutes a reinvestment in essentialist roles, the results of affirming masculinity through drumming contrast to those of the spirit possession ritual. Serving as an instrument of hegemonic masculinity, the bateria forces masculinist discourse upon female dancers and promotes brasilidade. An analysis and comparison of these two rituals, their participants and gender roles demonstrates that performing masculinity through drumming represents a significant manifestation of sexuality in Afro-Brazilian culture. More importantly, however, the research concludes that the unequitably reciprocal relationship between the drummer and dancer makes gender equality impossible in the context of carnaval. Only a iv reinvention or dismantling of these essentialist gender roles will permit participants to enjoy the event without limitation. v Acknowledgements Afro-Brazilian culture has been a driving force in every aspect of my life since I was sixteen years old. First and foremost, I thank the instructors of capoeira and samba that inspired my enthusiasm. Mestre Efraim Silva, for introducing me to capoeira and the world of Afro-Brazilian culture. My own capoeira mestre, Sânzio “Fuinha” Corrêa Nascimento, for always providing the advice I needed in capoeira and in life. My mestre de bateria, Philip Galinsky, for helping me to become a true samba ritmista. Mestrando Silas “Tigri” Pinto, for being an inspirational capoeirista, teacher and friend. To every capoeirista and sambista that has touched my life, you have my thanks. My advisor Dário, not only for guiding me through the process of completing my thesis, but also for continuing to inspire my dedication to Brazilian culture and my love for the people of Minas Gerais. My committee members, Anna and Chris, for their advice and model instruction throughout my time at UMass Dartmouth. My close friends, “Coruja” and Serena, who have been at my side for good and bad times ever since my arrival in Massachusetts. Sophie, for providing a constant source of encouragement and affection, and for preventing me from starving during long periods of research and writing. My siblings Alena and Ryan, who always put a smile on my face and keep me optimistic. My brother-in-law, Phil. I’m so glad you became a part of my family. Finally, my Mom and Dad, who have always given me love and support, even when pursuing my dream meant living a world away from them. vi Table of Contents Masculinity in Carioca Carnaval Drumming Introduction 1 Origins of Samba and Carnaval 7 Afro-Brazilian Religion and Gender Roles 13 Shifting Masculinities and the Brazilian Icons of Sexuality 29 Carioca Carnaval and Gender Roles 52 Conclusion 92 Works Cited 97 Review of Literature 102 Introduction 102 Samba, Carnaval and Brazilian History 103 Gender Theory 109 Sociological/Anthropological Texts Regarding Brazil and Brazilian Culture 122 Works Cited 151 vii Introduction The culturally vibrant pre-Lenten festival is celebrated in a variety of countries around the world, but none is so internationally renowned as the Brazilian carnaval. Rio de Janeiro, in particular, receives considerable attention from tourists, the media and academics for its samba school competition, which draws a surge of spectators to the sambadrome stadium each year. Despite the manifold facets of this event, the focus of the carioca carnaval generally falls upon the scantily clad and alluring female dancers known as passistas. The sexually charged image of the passista promotes a sexist historical discourse, which has resulted in a controversial conception of ideal femininity appropriated on a national level. The fact that this topic has captivated the majority of gender study research concerning Rio’s carnaval would suggest that samba school performances are primarily manifestations of feminine sexuality. But could this be valid when so many of the performers are male? A more extensive examination of sexuality in the samba schools reveals an essential role that has been ignored by gender studies on carnaval. The ritmista, or drummer, participates in a section of the samba school known as the bateria. The bateria is an essential component to the samba school because it produces the electrifying and powerful rhythms that drive the parade forward. Without the bateria, there would be no samba. If one were to examine this percussive wing, the most obvious observation would be that it is almost entirely composed of male participants. Such has been the case since the first samba school parade in 1929. This research aims to demonstrate how masculinity is performed in carioca carnaval through the role of the ritmista. Furthermore, it will examine the origins of samba school gender roles in Afro- 1 Brazilian religion and the Vargas regime’s officialization of carnaval. Finally, by placing iconic Brazilian figures in a sexual context, the research will demonstrate the effects of a shift in hegemonic masculinity on the drummer and dancer power relations, as well as the implications of performing masculinity through drumming in the samba parade. Today there are over one hundred samba schools in Rio de Janeiro, but when they became official in 1934 there were only twenty-five. Women were initially prohibited from participating in the bateria, thus restricting them to roles as dancers. In 1959, however, a small group of female