MAGILLS ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE PLANT LIFE MAGILLS ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SCIENCE PLANT LIFE Volume 4 Sustainable Forestry–Zygomycetes Indexes Editor Bryan D. Ness, Ph.D. Pacific Union College, Department of Biology Project Editor Christina J. Moose Salem Press, Inc. Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey Editor in Chief: Dawn P. Dawson Managing Editor: Christina J. Moose Photograph Editor: Philip Bader Manuscript Editor: Elizabeth Ferry Slocum Production Editor: Joyce I. Buchea Assistant Editor: Andrea E. Miller Page Design and Graphics: James Hutson Research Supervisor: Jeffry Jensen Layout: William Zimmerman Acquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Illustrator: Kimberly L. Dawson Kurnizki Copyright © 2003, by Salem Press, Inc. All rights in this book are reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner what- soever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address the publisher, Salem Press, Inc., P.O. Box 50062, Pasadena, California 91115. Some of the updated and revised essays in this work originally appeared in Magill’s Survey of Science: Life Science (1991), Magill’s Survey of Science: Life Science, Supplement (1998), Natural Resources (1998), Encyclopedia of Genetics (1999), Encyclopedia of Environmental Issues (2000), World Geography (2001), and Earth Science (2001). ∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Magill’s encyclopedia of science : plant life / edited by Bryan D. Ness. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 1-58765-084-3 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-085-1 (vol. 1 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-086-X (vol. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-087-8 (vol. 3 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-088-6 (vol. 4 : alk. paper) 1. Botany—Encyclopedias. I. Ness, Bryan D. QK7 .M34 2002 580′.3—dc21 2002013319 First Printing printed in the united states of america TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations, Charts, and Tables . lxvii Water and solute movement in plants . 1048 Alphabetical List of Contents . lxxi Wetlands . 1051 Wheat. 1054 Sustainable forestry . 997 Wood . 1056 Systematics and taxonomy . 999 Wood and charcoal as fuel resources . 1058 Systematics: overview . 1004 Wood and timber . 1060 Taiga . 1007 Yeasts . 1065 Textiles and fabrics . 1009 Thigmomorphogenesis . 1013 Zosterophyllophyta . 1067 Timber industry . 1015 Zygomycetes. 1069 Tracheobionta . 1017 Trimerophytophyta . 1021 Biographical List of Botanists . 1073 Trophic levels and ecological niches . 1023 Plant Classification . 1105 Tropisms . 1027 Plant Names: Common-to-Scientific . 1115 Tundra and high-altitude biomes . 1030 Plant Names: Scientific-to-Common . 1130 Time Line. 1199 Ulvophyceae. 1033 Glossary . 1207 Ustomycetes. 1035 Bibliography . 1244 Web Sites . 1254 Vacuoles . 1037 Vegetable crops . 1039 Biographical Index. III Vesicle-mediated transport. 1043 Categorized Index . VII Viruses and viroids . 1045 Index . XVII lxv PUBLISHER’S NOTE Magill’s Encyclopedia of Science: Plant Life is de- New appendices, providing essential research signed to meet the needs of college and high school tools for students, have been acquired as well: students as well as nonspecialists seeking general information about botany and related sciences. The • a “Biographical List of Botanists” with brief definition of “plant life” is quite broad, covering the descriptions of the contributions of 134 fa- range from molecular to macro topics: the basics of mous naturalists, botanists, and other plant cell structure and function, genetic and photosyn- scientists thetic processes, evolution, systematics and classi- fication, ecology and environmental issues, and • a Plant Classification table those forms of life—archaea, bacteria, algae, and fungi—that, in addition to plants, are traditionally • a Plant Names appendix, alphabetized by studied in introductory botany courses. A number common name with scientific equivalents of practical and issue-oriented topics are covered as well, from agricultural, economic, medicinal, and • another Plant Names appendix, alphabetized cultural uses of plants to biomes, plant-related en- by scientific name with common equivalents vironmental issues, and the flora of major regions of the world. (Readers should note that, although • a “Time Line” of advancements in plant sci- cultural and medicinal uses of plants are occasion- ence (a discursive textual history is also pro- ally addressed, this encyclopedia is intended for vided in the encyclopedia-proper) broad information and educational purposes. Those interested in the use of plants to achieve • a Glossary of 1,160 terms nutritive or medicinal benefits should consult a physician.) • a Bibliography, organized by category of re- Altogether, the four volumes of Plant Life survey search 379 topics, alphabetically arranged from Acid pre- cipitation to Zygomycetes. For this publication, 196 • a list of authoritative Web sites with their essays have been newly acquired, and 183 essays sponsors, URLs, and descriptions are previously published essays whose contents were reviewed and deemed important to include as Every essay is signed by the botanist, biologist, core topics. The latter group originally appeared in or other expert who wrote it; where essays have the following Salem publications: Magill’s Survey of been revised or updated, the name of the updater Science: Life Science (1991), Magill’s Survey of Science: appears as well. In the tradition of Magill reference, Life Science, Supplement (1998), Natural Resources each essay is offered in a standard format that al- (1998), Encyclopedia of Genetics (1999), Encyclope- lows readers to predict the location of core informa- dia of Environmental Issues (2000), World Geography tion and to skim for topics of interest: The title of (2001), and Earth Science (2001). All of these previ- each article lists the topic as it is most likely to be ously published essays have been thoroughly scru- looked up by students; the “Category” line indi- tinized and updated by the set’s editors. In addition cates pertinent scientific subdiscipline(s) or area(s) to updating the text, the editors have added new of research; and a capsule “Definition” of the topic bibliographies at the ends of all articles. follows. Numerous subheads guide the reader vii Magill’s Encyclopedia of Science: Plant Life through the text; moreover, key concepts are itali- cludes the volume’s contents, followed by a full cized throughout. These features are designed to “Alphabetical List of Contents” (of all the volumes). help students navigate the text and identify pas- All four volumes include a “List of Illustrations, sages of interest in context. At the end of each essay Charts, and Tables,” alphabetized by key term, to is an annotated list of “Sources for Further Study”: allow readers to locate pages with (for example) print resources, accessible through most libraries, a picture of the apparatus used in the Miller-Urey for additional information. (Web sites are reserved Experiment, a chart demonstrating the genetic off- for their own appendix at the end of volume 4.) A spring of Mendel’s Pea Plants, a map showing the “See also” section closes every essay and refers world’s major zones of Desertification, a cross- readers to related essays in the set, thereby linking section of Flower Parts, or a sampling of the many topics that, together, form a larger picture. For ex- types of Leaf Margins. At the end of volume 4 is ample, since all components of the plant cell are a “Categorized Index” of the essays, organized covered in detail in separate entries (from the Cell by scientific subdiscipline; a “Biographical Index,” wall through Vacuoles), the “See also” sections for which provides both a list of famous personages these dozen or so essays list all other essays cover- and access to discussions in which they figure ing parts of the cell as well as any other topics of in- prominently; and a comprehensive “Subject Index” terest. including not only the personages but also the core Approximately 150 charts, sidebars, maps, ta- concepts, topics, and terms discussed throughout bles, diagrams, graphs, and labeled line drawings these volumes. offer the essential visual content so important to Reference works such as Magill’s Encyclopedia students of the sciences, illustrating such core con- of Science: Plant Life would not be possible without cepts as the parts of a plant cell, the replication the help of experts in botany, ecology, environmen- of DNA, the phases of mitosis and meiosis, the tal, cellular, biological, and other life sciences; the world’s most important crops by region, the parts names of these individuals, along with their aca- of a flower, major types of inflorescence, or different demic affiliations, appear in the front matter to classifications of fruits and their characteristics. In volume 1. We are particularly grateful to the pro- addition, nearly 200 black-and-white photographs ject’s editor, Bryan Ness, Ph.D., Professor of Biol- appear throughout the text and are captioned to ogy at Pacific Union College in Angwin, California. offer examples of the important phyla of plants, Dr. Ness was tireless in helping to ensure thorough, parts of plants,