University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Anthropology Department Theses and Dissertations Anthropology, Department of 8-2013 An Historical Archaeological Investigation of the Indianola Prisoner of War Camp in Southwestern Nebraska Allison Marie Young University of Nebraska-Lincoln, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/anthrotheses Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons Young, Allison Marie, "An Historical Archaeological Investigation of the Indianola Prisoner of War Camp in Southwestern Nebraska" (2013). Anthropology Department Theses and Dissertations. 32. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/anthrotheses/32 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Anthropology, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Anthropology Department Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. AN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE INDIANOLA PRISONER OF WAR CAMP IN SOUTHWESTERN NEBRASKA by Allison M. Young A THESIS Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate College at the University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts Major: Anthropology Under the Supervision of Professor Peter Bleed Lincoln, Nebraska AUGUST, 2013 AN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE INDIANOLA PRISONER OF WAR CAMP IN SOUTHWESTERN NEBRASKA Allison M. Young, M.A. University of Nebraska, 2013 Adviser: Peter Bleed Second World War military operations resulted in the capture of thousands of prisoners of war. This led to the creation of internment facilities by both the Axis and the Allies. Archaeologists have begun to examine these facilities. The United States government established a POW program with numerous camps all over the country. This study provides the results of historical archaeological research at the Indianola prisoner of war camp in southwestern Nebraska. A goal of this research is to determine if the archaeological record reflects adherence to the Geneva Convention of 1929. The investigation included archival research and archaeological fieldwork with metal detector survey and test excavation. Findings indicate that prisoner areas were strictly policed and that camps were salvaged and reused after the war. This study also discusses the effectiveness of various methodological approaches to the study of internment and proposes a new theoretical model based on the Geneva Convention. i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project could not have been possible without the support and encouragement of a number of individuals. I would like to thank my adviser Peter Bleed for his invaluable contributions to this project. He has supported me every step of the way from making the initial site visit to get landowner permission through the final stages of the writing process. I would also like to thank Doug Scott for his unfaltering support over the course of this project. Doug’s guidance in initially choosing a thesis topic led me to a subject I truly enjoyed. Both Peter and Doug were on site for the data collection for this project and I am truly grateful for their mentorship and input. I would also like to thank my third committee member Bill Hunt for his encouragement and feedback on this research. The University of Nebraska-Lincoln field school was an invaluable resource in collecting the data. I would like to thank the field school students for their hard work during a week of brutal summer weather. I would also like to thank Courtney Ziska for volunteering at the site for several days. The anthropology department also supported me with Champe- Weekly funds to visit the National Archives. Tom Buecker at the Nebraska State Historical Society was incredibly helpful with the historical research. His knowledge of camps in Nebraska was invaluable during the early stages of this research, particularly during a scouting visit to the site. His willingness to share information and resources is inspiring. Bill Chada and David Stanzel at the Bureau of Reclamation were also supportive of this research. The provided valuable information and sources relevant to the Bureau of Reclamation’s time at the camp. ii The community of Indianola was a fantastic resource through the duration of this project. I have never felt more welcomed in an area where I was conducting archaeological work. I would particularly like to thank Bill Baumbach and Pat Schaffert at the Indianola Historical Society for their assistance. Bill was my primary contact in the area, and his logistical support for organizing the fieldwork made the project possible. I would also like to thank the cooperating landowners, Jim Waddell and Andy O’Dea. Lastly I would like to issue a broad thanks to Indianola as a community. Every local citizen I encountered was enthusiastic and supportive of the project. In particular, our neighbors at the site and the staff of the community pool were supportive. I would like to thank the staff at the Midwest Archeological Center for their support of this project. My supervisors Jeff Richner and Anne Vawser allowed me to use the center’s GIS software on personal time to conduct the GIS analysis. I would like to especially thank Andrew LaBounty for giving up numerous afternoons to assist with my GIS analysis. I would also like to thank Amanda Davey for assisting with setting up the GPS units prior to going into the field. Lastly I’d like to thank my friends and family for their emotional support during this process. My parents have supported and encouraged my academic endeavors from a young age, and I feel blessed to have them in my life. Numerous people have helped me through this process: Lucas Jameson, Adam Young, Jackson Becker, Hannah Clemons, Mathew Stange, Lauren Walton, Anna Bellatore, Curt Sedlacek, Christine Nycz, Ashley Barnett, and the entire happy hour group. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………… 1 Problem Statement…………….…………………………………………………..… 1 The State of Interment Archaeology (Review of Literature)……….……………….. 2 Types of Camps…………………….................................................................4 Research Motivations and Theoretical Orientations…………………..…… 15 Types of Data and Methodologies……………………..…………………… 21 The State of the Field of Internment Archaeology………………..………… 26 CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND…………………..……………………..29 Prisoners of War in the United States………………………..………………………29 Indianola Site History…………………………………..……………………………32 CHAPTER 3: METHODS……………………………………...………………………….47 Site Selection and Visits…………………………………………………..…..……..47 Indianola Fieldwork……………………………………………..…………………...48 Site Documentation……………………………………………………..……………49 Metal Detector Survey……………………………………………..………………...52 Excavation……………………………………………..….…………………………55 Camp Excavations…………………………………………………..……….55 Dump Location and Excavation………..…………………………………….58 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS…………………………………………………..………………60 Site Documentation………………………..…………………………………………60 Metal Detector Survey……………………………………………..…………...……63 iv Prisoner Compounds……………………………….……….………………63 Hospital Complex…………………………………….….……………….…70 Garrison Echelon…………………………………….…….………………..72 Other Camp Buildings…………………..………………….………………..76 Camp Excavation……………………………………………………….……..……..82 Compound 3…………………………………………………...…………..…82 Compound 2…………………………………………………..……….……..83 Dump Excavation……………………………………………..……….…………….85 Conclusion………………………………………………………………..………….95 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION……………………...….…………..97 Introduction…………………………………………………………….…………….97 Artifact Analysis………………………………………...……………….…………..98 Distribution Analysis……………………………………..………………...………101 New Model for POW Camps……………………………..………………………...106 Conclusion………………………..………………………………….……………..109 REFERENCES CITED………………………………..………………..………………..112 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Fences and Guard Tower at Indianola……………………………...………..33 Figure 2.2 Barracks at Indianola………………………………...………………………34 Figure 2.3 Indianola Camp Map…………………………………………………..…….36 Figure 2.4 Office Workers at Camp Indianola………………….……………………….37 Figure 2.5 Prisoners entering the camp……………………………………………….....38 Figure 2.6 1948 Aerial Image of the Camp…………………………………..………….42 Figure 2.7 Map of Bureau Modifications………………………………..………………43 Figure 2.8 Aerial Imagery of the Indianola Camp……………………………..………..44 Figure 2.9 Building foundation at the camp……………………………………..………44 Figure 2.10 Standing chimney in the hospital area………………………………..…...…45 Figure 2.11 Camp Water Tower………………………………………..…………………45 Figure 2.12 Standing structure in garrison echelon……………………………..………...46 Figure 2.13 Bakery Foundation…………………………………………………….…….46 Figure 3.1 Crew member maps a feature with the GPS unit……………………..…..…51 Figure 3.2 Metal Detector Survey……………………………………..….……….……54 Figure 3.3 Excavation in the camp…………………………………………..….……….56 Figure 3.4 Test Unit Map……………………………………………..…………………57 Figure 3.5 Excavation in the dump………………………………………..…………….58 Figure 4.1 Map of Remaining Foundations……………………….…………………….61 Figure 4.2 3D Model of Indianola……………………………………….….…………..62 Figure 4.3 North Wall Artifacts………………………………………..………………..64 vi Figure 4.4 Barracks Artifacts………………………….…………………….….……….65 Figure 4.5 Latrine Artifacts…………………………….………………………….…….66 Figure 4.6 Mess Hall Artifacts…………………………………………….…….………67 Figure 4.7 Storage Unit Artifacts………………..………………………………………68 Figure 4.8 Map of Metal Detector Survey Results for Compound Area…..……………69 Figure 4.9 Hospital Artifacts…………………………………………….….…….……..70