CULTIVATING EMPIRES: ENVIRONMENT, EXPERTISE, AND SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE IN LATE OTTOMAN AND FRENCH MANDATE SYRIA A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History By Elizabeth Rachel Williams, M.A. Washington, DC August 28, 2015 Copyright 2015 by Elizabeth Rachel Williams All Rights Reserved ii CULTIVATING EMPIRES: ENVIRONMENT, EXPERTISE, AND SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE IN LATE OTTOMAN AND FRENCH MANDATE SYRIA Elizabeth Rachel Williams, M.A. Thesis Advisor: Judith E. Tucker, Ph.D. ABSTRACT The transition from the Ottoman Empire to post-World War I mandate states in the Middle East coincided with the emergence of agricultural technologies and the development of new strategies of rule and conceptions of expertise considered integral to their practice. Given agriculture’s centrality to the economy of the region which would become the nation states of Syria and Lebanon, implementing these technologies was a stated priority for both the Ottoman and mandate governments. Using these historical developments as a lens, this dissertation examines contrasting strategies of imperial rule as exemplified through policies related to processes of agrarian change. By tracing circulations of expertise regarding these technologies and practices through actors involved in global, imperial, and local networks, it also investigates the intellectual and practical continuities and divergences in French, Ottoman, and Syrian technocratic approaches to environmental management, the impacts of these imperial policies on local rural communities, and these communities’ responses. By tracing continuities in the policies and networks of actors involved in the process of agrarian change and systematically analyzing the institutional developments that characterized the shift from the late Ottoman period through the mandate, this dissertation challenges prevailing periodizations. It also assesses, within a spatially-sensitive framework, how the officials of these two imperial powers differentially viewed the region’s environmental and agricultural importance to their imperial priorities and compares this with the perspectives of iii local technocrats, peasants, farmers, and landowners. In its focus on rural developments and cultivating communities, the dissertation aspires to respond to major lacunae in the historiography, which has primarily focused on urban spaces and elite actors during this period. Not only does it highlight the dynamics of rural change, but it traces the circulation of a variety of actors between rural and urban spaces and interrogates notions of modernity, science, and progress as they were articulated through policies of rural administration and agricultural change. Despite common imperial ambitions to exploit agricultural resources, different approaches to imperial rule, concepts of expertise, and management of the environment produced divergent results. iv I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents, Alan and Blanche Williams v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Writing a dissertation is an adventure and there have been many whose generosity, insights, and encouragement have made this journey possible and a pleasure. The writing of the dissertation would not have been possible without the patient guidance and unfailing encouragement of many mentors. I am most grateful to my committee members. Judith Tucker has been an exemplary advisor and an absolute delight to work with. Her passion for history, incisive and thoughtful commentary, and unwavering support have made the process of pursuing the PhD inspiring as well as enjoyable. John McNeill never ceases to amaze me with the quickness of his responses and his generosity with his time. His dedication to environmental history as well as his encouragement to articulate the broader connections of my research have pushed me in new directions. James Collins brings an enthusiasm and a level of individualized mentorship to his teaching that led me to explore diverse paths. His insightful comments and constructive criticisms and suggestions have never failed to enlighten me. I hope as a professor I can convey a portion of the passion they each bring to their work and their commitment to their students. As an MA student at New York University, Zachary Lockman, Ilana Feldman, and Timothy Mitchell challenged me to pursue new areas of interest and explore a variety of different perspectives. I would also like to thank Osama Abi-Mershed, Aparna Vaidik, Mustafa Aksakal, Yücel Terzibaşoğlu, Kathryn Olesko, and Martha Mundy for their thoughtful questions, helpful suggestions, and enthusiasm at various points in the process of conceiving the project and researching and writing the dissertation. Alison Games provided generous support at difficult moments. Sylvia Önder, Zeynep Gur, Yorgos Dedes, and Selim Kuru provided excellent instruction in Modern and Ottoman Turkish. For starting me on this path as an undergraduate at vi The College of William and Mary and for seeing me through at the end, I would like to thank Julie Galambush and Tamara Sonn. The research for this dissertation in multiple archives and the time necessary for writing it would not have been possible without the support of multiple grants and fellowships. An Institute of International Education (IIE) Fulbright grant to Turkey, an American Research Institute in Turkey (ARIT) fellowship, and a grant from the Institute for Turkish Studies provided crucial support for time in the Ottoman archives and the libraries of Istanbul. A Dissertation Research Travel Award from Georgetown University’s Graduate School, a Piepho Research and Travel Grant from Georgetown’s History Department, and a Cosmos Scholars Grant enabled me to visit archives and libraries in France, the United Kingdom, Lebanon, and Italy. A Royden B. Davis Fellowship from Georgetown’s History Department provided the time necessary to complete the writing of the dissertation. An ARIT Fellowship for Advanced Turkish, a Foreign Language and Area Studies Fellowship, and a Critical Language Scholarship provided essential funding for learning Modern and Ottoman Turkish. A number of conferences and workshops provided opportunities to present and receive feedback on parts of my work. I would like to thank Philippe Bourmaud, Norig Neveu, and Chantal Verdeil for organizing the “Experts and Expertise in the League of Nations Mandates: Figures, Fields, and Tools” conference in Paris in 2015; M. Talha Çiçek for inviting me to participate in “The Syrian Lands during the Great War: The Fourth Army Region Symposium” at Istanbul Şehir University in Istanbul in 2014; and Cyrus Schayegh and Andrew Arsan for holding “The Mashriq in the Age of Late Imperialism: The Mandates in Global Perspective Conference” at Princeton University in 2013. This 2013 conference resulted in the publication of an earlier version of chapter five as “Mapping the Cadastre, Producing the Fellah: Technologies vii and Discourses of Rule in French Mandate Syria and Lebanon,” in The Routledge Handbook of the History of the Middle East Mandates, eds. Cyrus Schayegh and Andrew Arsan, (New York: Routledge, 2015), 170-182. I am grateful to the publisher for permission to reproduce parts of that material. The dedication and enthusiasm of archivists and librarians in a number of institutions across three continents greatly facilitated the research process. The assistance of Fuat Bey and Seher Hanım among many others in the Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi was indispensable to making sense of such a vast, rich array of documentation. In Istanbul, I am also indebted to the staff of the Atatürk Kitaplığı, the Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi, and the İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi. In Beirut, Kaoukab Chebaro and Samar Mikati-Kaissi’s assistance and suggestions were extremely helpful for accessing the American University of Beirut’s archives and special collections. At the Bibliothèque Orientale, May Semaan Seigneurie, Magda Nammour, and Walid El-Khoury facilitated my exploration of the library’s rich periodical collection. In Rome, Fabio Ciccarello provided access to the Food and Agriculture Organization’s archives. I am also grateful to the archivists at the Ministère des Affaires étrangères archives diplomatiques in Nantes and Paris, the U.S. National Archives, the UK National Archives, and the Library of Congress for their assistance. There are many friends and colleagues worldwide who have not only provided feedback and intellectual companionship, but also much support, friendship, and encouragement. Among the many who made these experiences all the richer are Oscar Aguirre, Elizabeth Angell, Mary Berkmen, Dominique Blonz, Megan Brown, Josh Carney, Zerene Haddad, Timur Hammond, Ceyda Karamürsel, Sarah Al-Kazaz, Hikmet Kocamaner, Zeynep Küçükceran, Avital Livny, Fred Meiton, Nada Moumtaz, Emily Neumeier, Nova Robinson, Riad Saadé, Danielle V. viii Schoon, Nir Shafir, Ali Sipahi, Dale Stahl, Michael Talbot, and Özlem Unsal. In Nantes, Maïté George was unfailing in her hospitality and she and Cachou were always ready to welcome me back for another archive visit. In Beirut, Nadya Sbaiti very generously shared her depth of experience in the archives of Lebanon and Ahmad Dallal welcomed me to AUB. My colleagues in the Georgetown History Department have been an unfailing source of reassurance, support, fun, and friendship. Sylvia Mullins, Elena Abbott, Meredith Denning, Soha El-Achi, Laura Goffman, Jenn De Vries, and