Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Oran Faculty of Letters Languages and Arts Anglo-Saxon Language Department English Section Language Management and Marketing in Algeria Doctorate Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements of the Degree of Doctor in Sociolinguistics Submitted by Supervised by Louafia Boukreris Pr. Bouhadiba Farouk Board of examiners Chairman Bouamrane Ali Professor Professor University University of Oran of Oran Supervisor Bouhadiba Farouk Professor Professor University University of ofOran Oran Examiner Hocine Nacéra Professor Professor University University of of Annaba Annaba Examiner Benali Mohamed Rachid MaitreMaitre dede conferenceconference AA UniversityUniversity ofof OranOran Examiner Benmoussat Ismail Professor Professor University University of of Tlemcen Tlemcen Examiner Dendane Zoubir MaitreMaitre dede conferenceconference AA UniversityUniversity ofof TlemcenTlemcen Academic year 2010-2011 Dedicated to My dear mother My dear brothers and sisters My dear friends Mostefa Zoulikha ,Leila Moulfi, and Zitouni Mimouna And my dear colleagues With love… This thesis is dedicated to you all I Acknowledgements In a project of this nature, there are always some people who have contributed directly or indirectly to its completion, and thus, to all of these people, many of whom are not mentioned, I owe great debts of gratitude. May the almighty God richly bless them? First, my very special thanks go to my supervisor and academic adviser, Prof. Farouk Bouhadiba who went beyond the call of duty to give generously his time to offer help during the various stages of my doctoral research. I am most grateful for his constructive criticism, unbounded patience, and interest without which this study would never have reached this stage. I owe him a major debt for having stimulated further thoughts to complement the subject matter of my dissertation. My special thanks go also to Professor Ali Bouamrane, my principal magister thesis supervisor, who advised me in a continual way on how to get on with my research work. It would not have been possible to write this doctoral thesis without Professor’s Ali Bouamrane prior academic support, help, and patience he offered to initiate me to sociolinguistic research. This has paved me the way to further doctoral research. Thus, the personal and intellectual debts that I owe him as well as my mere expressions of thanks likewise do not suffice. I would like also to thank Dr. Zoulikha Mostefa SBA for her help, and critical reading of my first draft, and the valuable comments, and advice she offered me. My thanks go also Dr. Leila Moulfi for her encouragement, help, and support at times when she was more than submerged with some duties. I wish also to thank my colleague, Zitouni Mimouna, who offered her assistance during the printing phase of my work. My profound thanks go to all the members of my board of examiners. II List of acronyms and abbreviations CA : Classical Arabic MSA: Modern Standard Arabic SA: Spoken Arabic FR: French EU: European Union LL: Linguistic Landscape HRM: Human Resource Management Engco: English Company List of figures Figure 1: Language Planning Policy Approach………………………………………..96 Figure 2: The world hierarchy of languages…………………………………………..171 Figure 3: Major world languages in the future………………………………………..172 Figure 4: Language management organization……………………………………….210 Figure 5: the education and economic interrelations………………………………….211 III List of Maps Map 1: Arabic and Berber language layout……………………………………………26 Map 2: Arabic speaking majorities……………………………………………………..27 Map 3: Distribution of the Amazigh varieties…………………………………………32 Map 4: The distribution of the Berber communities…………………………………...34 Map 5: Linguistic communities in Belgium...………………………………………….38 List of tables Table 1: Arabic language varieties …………………………………………………….31 Table 2: The ethnic communities in Algeria…………………………………………...35 Table 3: School infrastructure 1962-1992..………………………………………….. 141 Table 4: Evolution of the Algerian teaching staff…………………………………….141 Table 5: Schooling, infrastructure and teaching staff.………………………………...142 Table 6: schooling development of children………………………………………….142 Table 7: Schooling of girls …………………………………………………………...142 Table 8: primary and secondary school infrastructure from 1964-2000 …………......143 Table 9: the EU countries numerical strength………………………………………...178 IV Contents Dedication ……...…………………………………………………………………...…... I Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………….......………...II List of acronyms and abbreviations ……………………………………………………III List of figures…………………………………………………………………..............III List of Maps...........................................................................................................……..IV List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………...IV Contents………………………………………………………………………………....V Abstract.........................................................................................................................VIII General Introduction …………………………………………………………………....X Chapter one: Language Diversity 1.1 Introduction...………………………………………………………………………..1 1.2 The Concept of Diversity and its Development...……………………………….…..2 1.2.1 Linguistic Diversity. ………………….………….…..….…............ ……4 1.2.2 Approaches to Linguistic Diversity……………………………...………10 1.2.3 Different Views of Language Diversity…………………………………12 1.2.4 Politics and Linguistic Diversity……………………………….….…… 17 1.3 Language and Population in North Africa ………………………………....……....19 1.3.1 Linguistic Diversity in Algeria……..………………………………...….23 1.3.1.1 The Arabic Language………………..…….……………….........27 1.3.1.2 The Berber Language……………………..……….…………….31 1.3.2 The Side Effects of Diversity………………………………..…………..35 1.4 Conclusion……………………………………………………….………………....39 V Contents Chapter two: Colonial language planning policy 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………...………….……...40 2.2 Education before 1830……………………………………………………….…......43 2.3 The Colonial Educational Policy Project...…………………………………......…..45 2.3.1 The French Authorities’ Position……………………………………….46 2.3.2 The Settlers’ Position.………………………………...……….………...50 2.4 The Implementation of the Colonial Policy...……………………………………...51 2.5 The Language Policy of ‘divide to rule’ …………………………………………...56 2.6 The Framing of the Sociolinguistic Situation…………………………………........57 2.6.1 Motivations behind the Arabic Language Status Devaluation…………..59 2.6.2 The French Schooling Policy…………………………………………...62 2.6.3 The Search for Policy Incentives.………………………….…...……….64 2.6.4 Berber Policy Advocators ………………………………….……..…….67 2.6.5 Policy Objective ……….………………………………………….........73 2.7 Conclusion……………………………………………………………...………….76 Chapter three: Language Planning in Independent Algeria 3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………......80 3.2 Planning: Definition………………………………………………………………..81 3.3 Language Planning…………………………………………………………………82 3.4 Language Planning and Nationalism….....................................................................98 3.4.1 Language and State Building………………………….………………..101 3.4.2 The Case of Algeria...…………………………………………………..103 3.4.3 Language Selection..................................................................................105 3.4.4 Language Planning Environment………………..……….…………….108 3.4.4.1The Elite: The Clash……………………………………...……..110 3.4.4.2 Importance of Literacy.…………………….…………………..121 3.4.4.3 The Berber Crisis…………………………………..…………...124 3.5 Arabization: Evolution within the French Colonial Legacy..……………….…….137 3.6 Conclusion…............................................................................................................ 146 VI Contents Chapter four: Language Management and Marketing 4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..…...149 4.2 Management Theory………………………………………………………….…...152 4.3 Language Management……………………………………………………………152 4.3.1 Language Auditing…...............................................................................156 4.3.2 Human Resources Management………………………………..……….157 4.3.2.1 Human Capital……………………………………..……………160 4.3.2.2 Social Capital…………………………………………….….......162 4.4 Education and Language Planning..…………….…………..…………………….163 4.4.1 Language Uncertainty…………………………………………………...169 4.4.2 Language Modernization………………………………………………..179 4.5 Language Attitudes……………………………………………………...………...181 4.6 Types of Attitudes…...............................................................................................183 4.7 Economic Consideration of Language Planning …………………………………188 4.8 Marketing: a Definition…………………………………………………………...191 4.8.1 Language Marketing: an economic adaptation……………………..…...192 4.8.2 Baker and Prys Language Marketing Approach…………………………194 4.8.3 Language landscape: Awareness and Marketing Role…………….…….198 4.8.4 Language and the Labour market………………………………………..201 4.9 Language Management Agencies………………………………………………..205 4.10 Translation as a Language Management Activity ………………………………211 4.11Conclusion...…………………………………………………………………..….211 General Conclusion……..…………………………………………………………….215 Bibliography ….............................................................................................................221 Annex …........................................................................................................................239 VII Abstract Diversity is one of the most puzzling and challenging feature of the different existing species in the universe. It is everywhere present in all species. The human species displays a complex