Julie Posetti Protecting Journalism Sources in the Digital Age Published in 2017 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France © UNESCO 2017 ISBN 978-92-3-100219-9 This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (http://www.unesco.org/open- access/terms-use-ccbysa-en). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. Author: Julie Posetti (WAN-IFRA/World Editors Forum/University of Wollongong, Australia) Academic Researchers: Julie Posetti, France/Australia (Chief Researcher); Marcus O’Donnell, Australia; Carlos Affonso Pereira de Souza, Brazil; Ying Chan, China; Doreen Weisenhaus, China. Graduate Research Assistants: Federica Cherubini, Angelique Lu, Alice Matthews, Alexandra Waldhorn, Emma Goodman, Farah Wael. Undergraduate research contributors: Jake Evans, Alexandra Sazonova-Prokouran, Jessica Sparks, Nick Toner, Olivia Wilkinson. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the University of Wollongong (Australia) as well as UNESCO colleagues, in particular Caroline Hammarberg. UNESCO thanks Sweden for its support in delivering this publication. Administrative Support: Ashleigh Tullis Graphic design: UNESCO Cover design: UNESCO Illustrations: UNESCO Typeset and printed by UNESCO Printed in France Table of contents Foreword .........................................................................................................................................................................5 Executive summary .....................................................................................................................................................7 1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 11 The implications of the digital era ......................................................................................................... 12 Background to the study .......................................................................................................................... 13 Issues and purpose of the research ..................................................................................................... 13 2. Methodology ............................................................................................................................................... 14 Research methods deployed .................................................................................................................. 14 3. Key findings .................................................................................................................................................. 18 Identification of key themes .................................................................................................................... 18 Analysis of key themes ............................................................................................................................. 19 Key themes analysis: Summary .............................................................................................................. 28 4. International Regulatory and Normative Environments .............................................................. 30 United Nations actors ................................................................................................................................ 31 Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 40 5. Regional instruments of Human Rights Laws and Normative Framework ............................ 41 European institutions ................................................................................................................................ 41 The Americas ................................................................................................................................................. 52 Africa ................................................................................................................................................................ 53 Asia and The Pacific ..................................................................................................................................... 55 Inter-regional institutions ......................................................................................................................... 55 Regional Instruments of Human Rights Law: conclusion ............................................................. 56 6. Overviews by UNESCO Region ............................................................................................................... 57 Africa ................................................................................................................................................................ 58 Arab States ..................................................................................................................................................... 64 Asia and the Pacific ..................................................................................................................................... 67 Europe and North America ...................................................................................................................... 75 Latin America and the Caribbean .......................................................................................................... 94 Regional conclusion .................................................................................................................................101 7. Thematic studies ........................................................................................................................................103 Thematic Study 1: The impact of source protection erosion in the digital age on the practice of investigative journalism globally ....................103 Thematic Study 2: How a State with one of the world’s oldest and constitutional legal source protection framework is responding and adapting to emerging digital threats ..............................................112 Thematic Study 3: Towards an international framework for assessing source protection dispensations in the digital age .............................120 8. Gender dimensions arising ....................................................................................................................134 9. Protecting Journalism Sources in the Digital Age: Conclusion .................................................136 10. Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................137 11. References ....................................................................................................................................................140 Appendices ...............................................................................................................................................................187 Appendix 1: List of experts accessed for qualitative interviews ..............................................187 Appendix 2: List of Review Panel Members ....................................................................................191 5 Foreword UNESCO is pleased to release this comprehensive study of changes that impact on legal frameworks that support protection of journalistic sources in the digital age. This research responds in part to a UNESCO resolution by the 38th General Conference held in 2015 as well as the CONNECTing the Dots Outcome Document adopted by our 195 Member States that same year. More specifically, the present publication was elaborated in an effort to address option 6.2 of the Outcome Document which recommends that UNESCO “recognize[s] the need for enhanced protection of the confidentiality of sources of journalism in the digital age”. In accordance with this mandate, UNESCO has developed a new approach to Internet and freedom of expression issues regarding safety, privacy, transparency, encryption, hate speech, radicalization and source protection. This is the framework of Internet Universality, and the Internet governance principles of Human Rights, Openness, Accessibility, and Multi- stakeholder Participation. The protection of confidentiality of journalists’ sources relates especially to the right to freedom of expression (and the correlatives of press freedom and access to information), and the right to privacy. While the rapidly emerging digital environment offers great opportunities for journalists to investigate and report information in the public interest, it also poses particular challenges regarding the privacy and safety of journalistic sources. These challenges include: mass surveillance