IN THE BEGINNING A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 1 04/09/13 1:36 AM A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 2 04/09/13 1:36 AM IN THE BEGINNING An Introduction to Archaeology THIRTEENTH EDITION Brian M. Fagan Emeritus, University of California, Santa Barbara and Nadia Durrani Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 3 04/09/13 1:36 AM Editor in Chief: Ashley Dodge Operations Specialist: Mary Ann Gloriande Publisher: Nancy Roberts Senior Art Director: Kathryn Foot Editorial Project Manager: Nicole Conforti Cover Design: Bruce Kenselaar Editorial Assistant: Molly White Cover Art: Chris Howes/Wild Places Photography/Alamy Development Editor: Ohlinger Publishing Services Manager, Visual Research: Beth Brenzel Executive Marketing Manager: Kelly May Full-Service Project Management and Composition: Marketing Coordinator: Jessica Warren PreMediaGlobal/Jared Sterzer Managing Editor: Denise Forlow Printer/Binder: Courier/Kendallville Project Manager: Anne Ricigliano Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color/Hagerstown Program Manager: Mayda Bosco Text Font: Adobe Caslon Pro 10/11.5 Senior Operations Supervisor: Mary Fischer Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text (or on page 431). Copyright © 2014, 2009, 2005 by The Lindbriar Corporation, Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permis- sions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fagan, Brian M. In the beginning : an introduction to archaeology / Brian Fagan and Nadia Durrani. — Thirteenth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-96658-5 ISBN-10: 0-205-96658-6 1. Archaeology—Methodology. 2. Archaeology—History. I. Durrani, Nadia. II. Title. CC75.F34 2013 930.1—dc23 2013019015 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-10: 0-205-96658-6 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-96658-5 A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 4 9/4/13 3:41 AM To Milton Johnson, who believed in this book and started it all those years ago. Thank you! The whole earth is the sepulcher of famous men; and their story is not graven only on stone over their native earth, but lives far away, without visible symbol, woven into the stuff of other men’s lives. For you now it remains to rival what they have done. —Thucydides, The Funeral Oration of Pericles A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 5 04/09/13 1:36 AM A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 6 04/09/13 1:36 AM Brief Contents PART I BACKGROUND TO ARCHAEOLOGY 1 1 Introducing Archaeology 2 2 The Beginnings of Scientific Archaeology: Sixth Century B.C. to the 1950s 26 3 The Many-Voiced Past: Archaeological Thought from the 1950s to Now 42 PART II THE BASICS 55 4 Matrix and Preservation 56 5 Doing Archaeological Research 72 6 Culture, Data, and Context 82 7 How Old Is It? 96 PART III RECOVERING THE DATA 119 8 They Sought It Here, They Sought It There: Finding the Past 120 9 How to Excavate 150 PART IV ANALYZING THE PAST: ARTIFACTS AND TECHNOLOGY 179 10 Classifying Artifacts 180 11 Technologies of the Ancients 194 PART V STUDYING ENVIRONMENTS AND PEOPLE 213 12 Ancient Environments 214 13 What Did We Eat? 234 14 The Living Past 260 15 Landscape and Settlement 277 16 Interactions: People of the Past 301 17 Archaeology and the Intangible 331 PART VI MANAGING THE PAST 353 18 Cultural Resource Management (CRM) and Public Archaeology 354 19 Archaeology and Contemporary Society 374 PART VII CAREERS AND RESOURCES 389 20 So You Want to Become an Archaeologist? 390 vii A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 7 04/09/13 1:36 AM A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 8 04/09/13 1:36 AM Contents Preface xxiii About the Authors xxvii What Happened When and Where: A Brief Journey Through Ancient Times xxviii PART I BACKGROUND TO ARCHAEOLOGY 1 Chapter 1 Introducing Archaeology 2 The First Archaeologists 2 What Is Archaeology Today? 3 Discovery: Catherwood and Stephens at Copán, Honduras, 1839 4 Are We Anthropologists? 5 Doing Archaeology: Spotlight on Anthropology 5 Are We Historians? 6 What Are the Differences between Archaeology and History? 6 Archaeology? Prehistory? What’s the Difference? 7 Discovery: The Jamestown Settlement, 1607 8 Are We Scientists? 9 Who Are the Archaeologists? 9 People of the Past: Early Female Archaeologists 11 Why Study Archaeology? 14 Archaeology Is Fascinating 14 Archaeology and the Remote Past 15 Discovery: Grotte de Chauvet, France, 1994 16 Archaeology in Today’s World 17 Who Owns the Past? 17 Archaeology and Politics 18 Is Archaeology in Crisis? 18 Unexplained Mysteries? Try Pseudoarchaeology 19 Collectors, Looters, and the Morality of Collecting 20 What Are the Goals of Archaeology? 22 Stewardship 22 Culture History 22 Doing Archaeology: An Archaeologist’s Ethical Responsibilities 23 Past Lifeways 23 Explaining Culture Change 23 Understanding the Archaeological Record 24 Summary 24 ■ Key Terms 25 ■ Questions for Discussion 25 ■ Further Reading 25 ix A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 9 05/09/13 12:44 AM x CONTENTS Chapter 2 The Beginnings of Scientific Archaeology: Sixth Century B.C. to the 1950s 26 Beginnings 27 Scriptures and Fossils 27 Doing Archaeology: William Stukeley: The Man Who Believed in Druids 28 The Antiquity of Humankind 29 The Three-Age System 30 Discovery: The Somme Hand Axes, France, 1859 31 Human Progress 31 Unilinear Cultural Evolution 31 Discovery: The Altamira Cave Paintings, Spain, 1875 32 Diffusion and Diffusionists 33 Historical Particularism 33 Culture History 34 Components and Phases 34 Culture Areas 34 Traditions and Horizons 35 Old World Archaeology 35 American Archaeology 37 Site: Alfred Kidder at Pecos, New Mexico, 1915–1929 37 The Americas: The Midwestern Taxonomic Method 38 The Americas: Chronology and Timescales 38 Cultural Ecology 38 Multilinear Cultural Evolution 38 Walter Taylor’s A Study of Archaeology 39 Summary 40 ■ Key Terms 41 ■ Questions for Discussion 41 ■ Further Reading 41 Chapter 3 The Many-Voiced Past: Archaeological Thought from the 1950s to Now 42 Culture History 43 Interpretation of Culture History 44 Invention 44 Diffusion 44 Migration 45 The “New” Archaeology 46 Discovery: Migration and Ancient Pacific Navigation 46 Processual Archaeology 47 Doing Archaeology: Hypothesis Testing at Broken K Pueblo, Arizona 48 Postprocessual Archaeology 49 Some Schools of Archaeological Theory 49 What Lies Ahead? 51 We Tend to Be Empirical 51 Multivocal Archaeology 52 Site: Çatalhöyük, Turkey, circa 7000 B.C. 53 Theory: Like a Visit to the Dentist? 53 A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 10 04/09/13 1:36 AM CONTENTS xi Summary 53 ■ Key Terms 54 ■ Questions for Discussion 54 ■ Further Reading 54 PART II THE BASICS 55 Chapter 4 Matrix and Preservation 56 Archaeological Data 56 Site-Formation Processes 57 Discovery: Eruption at Akrotiri, Greece, circa 1688 B.C. 58 The Matrix: Preservation and Human Activity 59 Doing Archaeology: Reconstructing the Abandoned Pearling City of Al Zubarah, Qatar 60 Discarding 61 Recycling 61 Preserving Ceremonial Artifacts and Heirlooms 61 Deliberate and Accidental Destruction 61 Preservation Conditions: Inorganic and Organic Materials 62 Organic Materials and the Archaeological Record 62 Waterlogged Environs and Wetlands 62 Dry Conditions 65 People of the Past: Pharaoh Rameses II, 1212 B.C. 66 Extreme Cold Conditions 68 Volcanic Ash 69 Contemporary Sites 70 Summary 70 ■ Key Terms 71 ■ Questions for Discussion 71 ■ Further Reading 71 Chapter 5 Doing Archaeological Research 72 The Archaeologist’s Skills 72 Theoretical Skills 73 Methodological Expertise 73 Discovery: A Saxon Ship Burial at Sutton Hoo, England, 1939 73 Technical Skills 74 Administrative and Managerial Skills 74 Writing and Analytical Skills 74 Archaeology and Science 74 The Scientific Method 75 The Process of Archaeological Research 76 Research Design and Formulation 76 Doing Archaeology: Ancient Wine at Abydos, Egypt 78 Data Collection 78 Data Processing, Analysis, and Interpretation 79 Publication 79 People of the Past: The Amesbury Archer, His Companion, and the Boscombe Bowmen: The People of Stonehenge, England, circa 2500 B.C. 80 Summary 81 ■ Key Terms 81 ■ Questions for Discussion 81 ■ Further Reading 81 A01_FAGA6585_13_SE_FM.indd 11 04/09/13 1:36 AM xii CONTENTS Chapter 6 Culture, Data, and Context 82 The Concept of Culture 82 The Nature of Culture 83 Discovery: Celebrating Finds at Carchemish, Syria 83 Models of Culture 85 Normative Models 85 Functional Models 85 Processual Models 86 Postprocessual Models 86 The Archaeological Record 86 Matrix and Provenance 87 The Principle of Association 87 The Principle of Superposition 88 Archaeological Context 88 Primary and Secondary Context 89 Spatial