A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick Permanent WRAP URL: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/99429/ Copyright and reuse: This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. For more information, please contact the WRAP Team at: [email protected] warwick.ac.uk/lib-publications The Securitization of Female Migrant Domestic Labour in Greece since the 1990s Theologia Iliadou A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Politics and International Studies University of Warwick, Department of Politics and International Studies July 2017 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES Í ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ÍÍÍ DECLARATION ÍV ABSTRACT V ABBREVIATIONS VÍ INTRODUCTION 1 1. BEING A FEMALE MIGRANT IN GREECE: THE CASE OF KONSTANTINA KUNEVA 5 2. HYPOTHESIS 10 3. THE PROBLEMATISATION OF FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR IN RESEARCH AND LITERATURE 13 3.1 FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR WITHIN DISCIPLINES 13 Ø MIGRATION THEORY 14 Ø SOCIOLOGY 15 Ø POLITICS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 17 Ø GLOBALIZATION 19 3.2 GREEK CASE IN RESEARCH AND LITERATURE 22 Ø MIGRATION, RACISM AND XENOPHOBIA 24 Ø MIGRATION, SOCIAL EXCLUSION AND INTEGRATION 26 Ø THE POLITICIZATION OF MIGRATION IN GREECE 30 Ø FEMALE MIGRATION 32 3.3 DIFFERENT THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS AND THIS PROJECT 34 4. THE SECURITIZATION OF FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR IN GREECE: DESIGN OF THIS PROJECT 36 4.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND THE ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK OF THIS PROJECT 42 4.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 48 4.3 STRUCTURE OF THIS PROJECT 57 5 CONTRIBUTION TO RESEARCH AND LITERATURE 61 CHAPTER 1 SECURITIZATION THEORY AND THIS PROJECT 65 INTRODUCTION 65 1. SECURITY STUDIES AND MIGRATION 69 2. CRITICAL SECURITY STUDIES 70 2.1. WELSH SCHOOL 72 2.2. PARIS SCHOOL 77 2.3. HUMAN SECURITY 79 2.4. FEMINISM AND CRITICAL SECURITY STUDIES 82 3. THE COPENHAGEN SCHOOL AND SECURITIZATION THEORY 85 3.1. THE SPEECH ACT 87 3.2. SECURITIZING MOVES: WHAT CONSTITUTES A SUCCESSFUL SECURITIZING MOVE? 89 Ø THREE UNITS OF ANALYSIS 89 Ø THREE COMPONENTS OF SUCCESS 92 Ø SECURITY SECTORS 94 3.3. SECURITIZATION THEORY AND GENDER 96 3.4. SECURITIZATION THEORY AND MIGRATION 98 3.5. SECURITIZATION THEORY AND THE POLITICS OF EXCEPTION 106 3.6. ARGUING FOR THE DESECURITIZATION OF MIGRATION 108 3.7. ECURITIZATION – A POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE CONCEPT? 110 3.8. SECURITIZATION THEORY AND MIGRATION – A CRITIQUE 113 CONCLUSION 116 CHAPTER 2 THE FEMINISATION OF MIGRATION AND THE CASE OF FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR IN GREECE 119 INTRODUCTION 119 1. THE FEMINISATION OF MIGRATION: A GLOBAL PHENOMENON 120 2. GREECE AND THE CONTEMPORARY MIGRATION WAVE 127 2.1 1970S: THE EMERGENCE OF GREECE AS A MIGRANT RECEIVING COUNTRY 127 2.2 1980S – 1990S: THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ECONOMIC MIGRATION IN GREECE 130 2.3 2001: THE YEAR OF THE CENSUS AND A FIRST CLEARER PICTURE OF THE CONTEMPORARY MIGRATION WAVE IN GREECE 137 2.4 2000S: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 144 3. THE FEMINISATION OF MIGRATION IN GREECE 148 CONCLUSION 159 CHAPTER 3 FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR UNDER NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LAW – THE INSTITUTIONALISATION OF SECURITIZATION 161 INTRODUCTION 161 1. FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR AND THE INTERNATIONAL LAW 164 1.1 ILO CONVENTION NO 189 – DECENT WORK FOR DOMESTIC WORKERS 164 1.2 EUROPEAN UNION AND FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC WORKERS 168 2. MIGRATION POLICIES IN GREECE 173 2.1 STEP 1 – THE 1975/1991 LAW 173 Ø LEGAL FRAMEWORK 174 Ø GOVERNANCE 178 Ø BILATERAL AGREEMENTS 180 2.2 STEP 2 – THE 358/1997 AND 359/1997 PRESIDENTIAL DECREES 181 Ø 358/1997 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE – CONDITIONS AND PROCESS, FOR THE LEGAL STAY AND EMPLOYMENT OF ALIENS IN GREECE, THAT ARE NOT MEMBERS OF THE STATE-MEMBERS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION 182 • RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF LEGAL ALIENS 185 Ø 359/1997 ADMINISTRATION OF TEMPORARY RESIDENCE CARDS TO ALIENS 185 • RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF LEGAL ALIENS 187 Ø BILATERAL AGREEMENTS 188 2.3 STEP 3 – THE 2910/2001 LAW 188 Ø LEGAL FRAMEWORK 189 Ø RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF LEGAL ALIENS 192 Ø GOVERNANCE 193 Ø BILATERAL AGREEMENTS 193 2.4 STEP 4 – THE 3386/2005 LAW 194 Ø LEGAL FRAMEWORK 195 Ø GOVERNANCE 198 Ø BILATERAL AGREEMENTS 199 2.5 STEP 5 – THE 3536/2007 LAW 200 Ø LEGAL FRAMEWORK 200 Ø BILATERAL AGREEMENTS 201 CONCLUSION 202 CHAPTER 4 IN SEARCH OF FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC WORKERS IN THE PARLIAMENT: SECURITIZATION IN THE MAKING 208 INTRODUCTION 208 1. 1991 AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE MIGRATION PROBLEM IN GREECE 211 1.1 FOREIGN POLICY AND THE CULTIVATION OF RACISM AND XENOPHOBIA 215 2. THE SOCIOECONOMIC AXIS: AND THE NARRATIVE OF “NATIONALS STEALING JOBS FROM GREEKS” 219 3. THE SECURITARIAN AXIS 227 3.1 MIGRATION AND THE RISE IN CRIMINALITY 227 3.2 VIOLENCE OF POLICE OFFICERS TOWARDS MIGRANTS 232 3.3 THE VICTIMIZATION OF MIGRANTS 239 3.4 THE MANAGEMENT OF ECONOMIC MIGRATION 245 3.5 THE MANAGEMENT OF ILLEGAL MIGRATION 251 4. THE IDENTITARIAN AXIS 255 CONCLUSION 270 CHAPTER 5 MIGRATION AND FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR IN THE PRINTED PRESS - THE ACCEPTANCE OF SEUCRITIZATION 278 INTRODUCTION 278 1. THE SOCIOECONOMIC AXIS 281 1.1 ECONOMIC MIGRATION 281 1.2 HEALTH SECURITY 287 2 THE SECURITARIAN AXIS 290 2.1 MIGRANTS, RISE IN CRIMINALITY AND THE SOCIAL SPHERE 290 2.2 MIGRANTS, RISE IN CRIMINALITY AND CORRUPTION 297 3 THE IDENTITARIAN AXIS 301 3.1 SOCIAL RESPONSES TO MIGRANTS AND MIGRATION 302 4 FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC WORKERS 313 4.1 THE MANAGEMENT OF FEMALE MIGRATION AND FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR 316 CONCLUSION 327 CONCLUSION 332 INTRODUCTION 332 1. THE SECURITIZATION OF FEMALE MIGRANT DOMESTIC LABOUR IN GREECE 335 2. POST-SCRIPT AND THE FUTURE OF THE POLITICIZATION OF MIGRATION IN GREECE 347 APPENDIX 354 BIBLIOGRAPHY 386 LIST OF TABLES Table No Table Name Page 1 Securitization as a Process 41 2 Research Design 48 Global and regional estimates on the number of domestic 3 workers in 2010. Both sexes 122 Global and regional estimates on the number of domestic 4 workers in 2010. Females 123 Global and regional estimates on the number of domestic 5 workers in 2010. Males 123 6 Residence Permits and Deportation Numbers in the 1990s 135 Evolution of Legal and Undocumented non-EU Immigrant 7 Stock in Greece 137 8 National Distribution of Migration 139 9 Percentage of Female Migrants in the Census 140 10 Migration Drives 2001 Census 140 11 Occupations of Albanian Migrants Census Data 2001 142 12 Occupations of Bulgarian Migrants Census Data 2001 143 13 Occupations of Romanian Migrants Census Data 2001 144 14 Geographical Distribution of Migration Census 2011 146 15 Third country nationals found to be illegally present 147 16 Percentage of Female Migrants Census 2011 148 17 Labour sector distribution of female migrants in Greece 151 Education years in relation to the female migrants’ 18 occupation 152 Household composition and forms of cohabitation in 19 relation to female migrants’ country of origin 153 Country of residence of the children in relation to female 20 migrants’ country of origin 155 The most important problems female migrants face daily in 21 their lives in Greece 157 i Future settlement plans of female migrants according to 22 their country of origin 158 Knowledge of the Greek language for female migrants in 23 relation to their country of origin 159 24 Data on migrant offenses 293 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Everything in life is a journey and we make every decision without knowing where it is going to lead us. This PhD project has not just been an academic project but a life experience. Apart from expanding my knowledge about the world, it has challenged my strength and faith in myself but crowned me a warrior by the end of it. The first person that I would like to thank is my supervisor Prof. Franklyn Lisk as I am sure I would not have managed to reach the completion of this project without his patience, support and belief in me. I thank him for being an inspiring supervisor and a perfect example of an academician with his immense knowledge, skilful research and deep respect for his students. The second person is my second supervisor Prof. Shaun Breslin. I appreciate him taking me on board and supporting me despite the challenges I had to face. Your practical approach to the PhD process empowered me and I am grateful for that. Being Greek and knowing the challenges that someone can face when knocking on political doors for access to information I would like to extend my gratitude to the director and employees of the library department of the Greek Parliament. They not only helped me practically with my archival research but also showed a genuine interest in my thesis and offered insightful contribution given their knowledge of the parliamentary developments in Greece. Their professionalism and high standard of service are an example to be followed by the rest of the public sector in Greece. My dear grandmother whom I lost during the final year of my PhD, was the source of inspiration for this project. She was a sharp, clever and knowledgeable woman, but having been born in 1929 and coming from a very wealthy aristocratic family she was only given the chance to study until secondary school, was denied further education and was married off to my grandfather, a kind and loving man that I loved dearly, who was chosen by her family. All her life she remained thirsty for knowledge, yearning for a place in society other than a mother and a wife.