Textbook on Administrative Law This page intentionally left blank Textbook on Administrative Law Seventh Edition Peter Leyland Professor of Public Law, London Metropolitan University Gordon Anthony Professor of Public Law, Queen’s University, Belfast 1 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Peter Leyland and Gordon Anthony 2013 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Fourth edition 2002 Fifth edition 2005 Sixth edition 2009 Impression: 1 All rights reserved. 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OUTLINE CONTENTS 1 Introduction: theory and history 1 2 Constitutional context 18 3 European Union law and administrative law 39 4 Human rights and administrative law 58 5 The modern administrative state 81 6 The ombudsman principle 125 7 Dispute resolution: tribunals and inquiries 156 8 Introduction to judicial review 178 9 Extending the reach of judicial review: the public–private divide and the Royal prerogative 213 10 Limiting judicial review: ouster clauses and public interest immunity 236 11 Illegality I 267 12 Illegality II 288 13 Unreasonableness, irrationality, and proportionality 315 14 Equality 343 15 Legitimate expectations 353 16 Procedural impropriety I: statutory requirements 373 17 Procedural impropriety II: common law rules 384 18 Remedies in judicial review 430 19 Contracting and public bodies 447 20 Public authority liability in tort 458 21 Conclusion: administrative law facing the future 481 This page intentionally left blank DETAILED CONTENTS Preface xiii Table of Cases xv Table of Legislation xxix Glossary of Terms xxxvi 1 Introduction: theory and history 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.5 Administrative law and the origins of 1.2 Defi nition 1 the modern state 10 1.3 Law and context 4 1.6 Conculsion towards a grievance chain in administrative justice? 14 1.4 Red and green light perspectives 5 2 Constitutional context 18 2.1 Introduction 18 2.5 Parliamentary sovereignty and the 2.2 Parliamentary sovereignty 19 assertion of judicial authority 26 2.3 The Westminster and Whitehall 2.6 Separation of powers: nature and models 20 implications 29 2.4 Individual ministerial responsibility 2.7 The rule of law 34 and the role of Parliament and 2.8 Conclusion 36 MPs 21 3 European Union law and administrative law 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.3 EU law in the UK 49 3.2 EU law and national legal systems: the 3.4 Conclusion 55 obligations of membership 40 4 Human rights and administrative law 58 4.1 Introduction 58 4.4 The Human Rights Act, the ECHR, 4.2 Human rights and the common law and constitutional principle 66 pre-Human Rights Act 60 4.5 The EU Charter of Fundamental 4.3 Why give effect to the ECHR? 64 Rights 78 4.6 Conclusion 79 viii Detailed contents 5 The modern administrative state 81 5.1 Introduction 81 5.7 Police authorities 111 5.2 Powers 83 5.8 Privatisation and regulation 112 5.3 Central government 90 5.9 Citizen’s Charter to Customer Service 5.4 The National Health Service 98 Excellence 119 5.5 Non-departmental public bodies 100 5.10 Freedom of information 120 5.6 Devolution and local government 102 5.11 Conclusion 122 6 The ombudsman principle 125 6.1 Introduction 125 6.7 Open government and freedom of 6.2 Constitutional context 126 information 138 6.3 Parliamentary Ombudsman: ‘MP 6.8 The PO’s workload 139 fi lter’ or direct access 128 6.9 Investigations by the PO 141 6.4 What is maladministration? 129 6.10 The complaints industry: a 6.5 Investigatory procedures and powers proliferation of ombudsmen 147 established under the Parliamentary 6.11 Citizen’s Charter, Customer Service Commissioner Act 1967 132 Excellence, and the quest for ‘good 6.6 Limits to the PO’s jurisdiction 136 administration’ 150 6.12 Conclusion 152 7 Dispute resolution: tribunals and inquiries 156 7.1 Introduction 156 7.6 Tribunals: conclusion 168 7.2 Courts and tribunals compared 157 7.7 Inquiries 169 7.3 Tribunal procedure and the Human 7.8 Public inquiries for special Rights Act 1998 160 purposes 172 7.4 The Leggatt Report and the 7.9 The Inquiries Act 2005 175 establishment of a unifi ed tribunal 7.10 Conclusion 176 service 161 7. 5 Appeals, judicial review, and the Cart case 167 8 Introduction to judicial review 178 8.1 Introduction 178 8.7 Public law and private law remedies: 8.2 Governmental power 180 which procedure? 194 8.3 The supervisory/appellate 8.8 Effective alternative remedies 199 distinction 182 8.9 An arguable case 200 8.4 Statutory powers, statutory duties, 8.10 Standing 201 and discretion 184 8.11 Time limits and delay 208 8.5 The emergence of judicial 8.12 Conclusion 210 review 187 8.6 The judicial review procedure 191 Detailed contents ix 9 Extending the reach of judicial review: the public–private divide and the Royal prerogative 213 9.1 Introduction 213 9.3 Judicial review and the prerogative 9.2 Identifying public law decisions: the powers 223 public–private divide 214 9.4 Conclusion 233 10 Limiting judicial review: ouster clauses and public interest immunity 236 10.1 Introduction 236 10.5 Implied limits on judicial review: (II) 10.2 Ouster and time limit clauses 237 public interest immunity 251 10.3 Subjective words 247 10.4 Error of law on the face of the record 249 11 Illegality I 267 11.1 Introduction 267 11.5 Relevant and irrelevant 11.2 The importance of statutory considerations 276 interpretation 268 11.6 Bad faith 286 11.3 Simple ultra vires 269 11.7 Conclusion 286 11.4 ‘Improper’ purpose 270 12 Illegality II 288 12.1 Introduction 288 12.5 Fettering discretion by wrongful 12.2 Fettering discretion: deciding by delegation 301 reference to a policy 289 12.6 Errors of law and errors of fact 304 12.3 Estoppel and the fettering of 12.7 Delegated (or subordinate) discretion 296 legislation 308 12.4 Fettering discretion by contract 299 12.8 Conclusion 313 13 Unreasonableness, irrationality, and proportionality 315 13.1 Introduction 315 13.5 Proportionality 325 13.2 Wednesbury unreasonableness 13.6 The Human Rights Act and and general unreasonableness proportionality 329 distinguished 316 13.7 Wednesbury and proportionality 13.3 History of unreasonableness 319 outside the Human Rights Act 339 13.4 Irrationality: Lord Diplock’s 13.8 Conclusion 340 reformulation in GCHQ 323 x Detailed contents 14 Equality 343 14.1 Introduction 343 14.4 Equality and the ECHR 347 14.2 Equality and the common law 344 14.5 Equality and statute law 350 14.3 Equality and EU law 346 14.6 Conclusion 351 15 Legitimate expectations 353 15.1 Introduction 353 15.4 Coughlan and the protection 15.2 When are legitimate expectations of substantive legitimate created? 355 expectations 363 15.3 The development of the 15.5 Unlawfully created legitimate doctrine 357 expectations 368 15.6 Conclusion 371 16 Procedural impropriety I: statutory requirements 373 16.1 Introduction 373 16.4 Conclusion—the common sense 16.2 Procedural ultra vires 374 approach? 382 16.3 Statutory requirements: indications from the case law 376 17 Procedural impropriety II: common law rules 384 17.1 Introduction 384 17.4 The rule against bias 415 17.2 History 386 17.5 Conclusion 428 17.3 The right to a hearing 400 18 Remedies in judicial review 430 18.1 Introduction 430 18.4 Remedies and the European 18.2 The origins and discretionary nature Communities Act 1972 441 of the remedies 431 18.5 Remedies and the Human Rights Act 18.3 The remedies 433 1998 442 18.6 Conclusion 445 19 Contracting and public bodies 447 19.1 Introduction 447 19.5 Void contracts 453 19.2 Government power to contract 448 19.6 Restitution and public authorities 455 19.3 Fettering discretion 451 19.7 Conclusion 456 19.4 Judicial accountability 453 Detailed contents xi 20 Public authority liability in tort 458 20.1 Introduction 458 20.4 A change in direction 472 20.2 Public authority liability: the 20.5 The Human Rights Act and liability in principal torts 460 tort 476 20.3 Negligence, public functions, and 20.6 Conclusion 479 limiting the common law duty of care 467 21 Conclusion: administrative law facing the future 481 21.1 Introduction: is there now a system of 21.4 The courts, human rights, and the administrative law? 481 reformed constitution 485 21.2 United Kingdom Supreme Court 483 21.5 A balanced constitution? 487 21.3 Freedom of information 484 21.6 Conclusion 490 Index 493 Public Law Online Resources from Oxford Visit www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/publiclaw/ for access to a wealth of resources that accompany this book and have been designed to support your study of public law.