Energy for Development The Beijer Institute The Scandinavian Institute Thc Royat Swedish of A-ffican Studies Arrtdemy of Sciences UppsaEa, Sweden Stockholm, Sweden ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA 11 ENERGY FOR DEVELOPMENT IN ZIMBABWE Edited by Richard H. Hosier Published by THE BEUER INSTITUTE and THE SCANDINAVIAN INSTITUTE The Royal Swedish OF AFRICAN STUDIES Academy of Sciences Uppsala, Sweden Stockholm, Sweden The series "Energy, Environment and Development in Africa" is published jointly by the Beijer Institute and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, with financial support from the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA Other titles in this series: 1. Energy and Development in Kenya: Opportunities and Constraints. P. 0' Keefe, P. Raskin and S. Bernow (Eds). 2. SADCC: Energy and Development to the Year 2000. J.T.C Simoes (Ed). 3. Energy and Development in Southern Africa: SADCC Country Studies, Part I. P. 0' Keefe and B. Munslow (Eds). 4. Energy and Development in Southern Africa: SADCC Country Studies, Part 11. P. 0' Keefe and B. Munslow (Eds). 5. Manufacturing Industry and Economic Development in the SADCC Countries. R. Peet. 6. Wood, Energy and Households: Perspectives on Rural Kenya. C. Barnes, J. Ensminger and P. 0' Keefe (Eds). 7. Energy Use in Rural Kenya: Household Demands and Rural Transformation. R.H. Hosier. 8. LEAP: A Description of the LDC Energy Alternatives Planning System. Paul D. Raskin. 9. Zimbabwe: Energy Planning for National Development. R.H. Hosier (Ed). 10. Zimbabwe: Industrial and Commercial Energy Use. R.H. Hosier (Ed). 11. Energy for Rural Development in Zimbabwe. R.H. Hosier (Ed). ISSN 0281-8515 ISBN 91-7106-278-5 0 The Beijer Institute and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies 1988 Printed in Sweden by Bohuslaningens AB, Uddevalla 1988 FOREWORD The studies presented in thi S Volume were originally carried out as part of the Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project (ZEAP). The ZEAP was a joint undertaking between the Beijer Institute of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Ministry of Water and Energy Resources and Development of the Republic of Zimbabwe. The objectives of the Project were fourfold, namely: (1) To establish a detailed end-use energy accounting system for Zimbabwe; (2) To examine rural energy problems in general , and the woodfuel problem in particular; (3) To examine, in detail, industrial energy consumption and the commercial fuel supply sectors; and (4) To develop a set of projects consistent with the Government-S overall policy directions to address the energy problems identified. The materials in this Volume, which concentrate on the second objective above, are published for two reasons: First, there is generally very little information available on Zimbabwe energy issues. Second, the overall conclusions of the ZEAP project, summarized in Volume 9 of this series, was only able to reflect the "tip of the iceberg" of work that went into the ZEAP effort. I am most grateful to all our Zimbabwean and other colleagues who contributed to this volume (see page 243). I am particularly indebted to Dr Richard Hosier who has taken responsibility for up-dating and editing of the ZEAP material that went into this Volume. Gordon T. Goodman Executive Director Bei jer Institute PREFACE The papers published in this book represent the collec- tive and individual thoughts of the working group on rural energy development of the Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project (ZEAP). The project was a joint undertaking between the Beijer Institute of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Ministry of Water and Energy Resources and Development of the Government of Zimbabwe. The first paper was formulated by the entire rural energy working group. Originally written in late 1383, it was intended to formulate the major concepts and issues to inform the remainder of the work on rural energy. The papers then progressively focus on agriculture, households, and energy technology and the environment. The second paper provides a thorough look at energy use ~n Zimbabwe's agricultural sector. This is complemented by the third paper on land-use patterns and ecological potential. From the agricultural sector, the papers then turn to the household sector. The fourth paper analyses household energy consumption and uses a multinomial logit framework to analyze the determinants of fuel choice throughout Zimbabwe. The fifth paper focuses on the role of women in Zimbabwe's rural energy economy. The final four papers address issues of energy technology and the environment in rural Zimbabwe. The sixth paper focuses on the efficiency of domestic cookstoves and presents the results of a comprehensive stove-testing program carried out as part of the ZEAP. The seventh paper examines current tree-planting, and agroforestry practices in Zimbabwe. The eighth paper looks at the impact of fuelwood harvesting on soil erosion in Zimbabwe's communal areas. The final paper assesses the potential of renewable energy technologies for making a significant impact on the major problems in Zimbabwe's rural energy system. I am greatly indebted to all the contributors to this volume, and I hope that the final product is worthy of their efforts. A special vote of thanks goes to Bonnie Ram who was the project administrator responsible for organizing most of the work. I would like to thank Lars Kristoferson and Gordon Goodman for their encouragement to organize and publlsh this material. Keith Adams spent endless hours deciphering notes, tracing references, editing drafts, and finally putting all of this into acceptable form. Priscilla Chinyangara, Solveig Nilsson, and Lori Cole all deserve thanks for having entered different versions of these papers onto word processors and then revised them. Any errors of omission or commission remaining at this point are solely the respons~bilityof the editor. Richard B. Hosier August 1987 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania CONTENTS I. Energy for Rural Development in Zimbabwe: Concepts 1 and Issues for Growth with Equity 1. Introduction 1 2. Energy for Rural Development in Zimbabwe 1 3. Approaches to Energy Planning in Developing 3 Countries 4. Zimbabwe's Rural Structure and Energy System 10 5. Zeap Rural Energy Studies 14 6. Rural Energy Policy Issues 16 11. Energy Use in Zimbabwe's Agricultural Sector 20 Introduction 20 Energy Use in Agriculture 2 1 Zimbabwe's Natural Resource Base 2 3 Zimbabwe's Agrarian Structure 25 Energy Use in Zimbabwe's Agricultural Sector 3 2 The Energetics of Agriculture in Zimbabwe 3 5 Key Issues for Agricultural Energy Development 45 Summary and Recommendations 5 2 111. Methodology for the Assessment of Land-Use in Zimbabwe 1. Introduction 60 2. Land Areas and Ecological Zones 60 3. Distribution of Cultivation 6 7 4. Indigenous Forest and Grazing Land and Non- 7 1 Utilizable land 5. Agricultural Productivity 73 Appendices: The distribution of Land by Natural 75 Region, 1982 Appendix 111-1: Communal Land 75 Appendix 111-2: LSCF and State Farms 77 Appendix 111-3: Resettled Areas 79 Appendix 111-4: SSCF IV. Household Energy Use in Zimbabwe: An Analysis of Consumption Patterns and Fuel Choice 1. Introduction 2. Physical and Conceptual Background 3. Residential Energy Consumption in Zimbabwe 4. Household Fuel Choice 5. Conclusions V. Women and the Rural Energy Economy of Zimbabwe: 110 Research Findings and Policy Issues 1. Introduction 2. Women and Rural Energy 3. Towards a 17omen-Oriented Rural Energy Development Policy VI. Performance Testing Domestic Cookstoves for Zimbabwe 142 1. Introduction 2. The Program 3. The Stoves 4. Results and Discussion 5. Conclusions VII. Fuelwood Consumption and Supply Patterns, Tree- 160 Planting Practices, and Farm Forestry in Rural Zimbabwe 1. Introduction Part I. Fuelwood Consumption Patterns and Supply in Rural Zimbabwe 2. Background 3. Fuel Types, Appliances and Preferred Fuelwood Species 4. \?ood Storage 5. How Fuel is Obtained 6. Source of Fuelwood 7. Transport 8. Demand and Supply 9. Wood Resource Adequacy Part 11. Tree-Planting Practices and the Potential Role of Farm Forestry in Zimbabwe's Rural Areas 10. Introduction 11. Results of the Tree-Planting Survey 12. Discussion 13. Farm Forestry 14. General Discussion 15. Conclusions VIII.Woodfuel Harvesting and Soil Erosion in Zimbabwe 185 1. Introduction 185 2. Factors Influencing Soil Erosion and Erosion 186 Rates in Zimbabwe 3. Soil Erosion Hazard 190 4. Soil Erosion Observations 191 5. Erosion Classification Scheme 193 6. General Conclusions from Field Observations 194 IX. The Prospect for Application of Renewable Energy Technologies in Zimbabwe's Rural, Domestic and Agricultural Sectors Introduction Demand Renewable Energy Resources Review of Applications and Technology Cooking and Heating Water Heating Traction and Transport Irrigation, Stock Watering and Domestic \later Pumping Conclusions List of Contributors Index LIST OF TABLES Chapter I 1-1 Classification Matrix for Rural Energy Studies 8 1-2 Zeap Project Studies 15 Chapter I1 Land Areas by Natural Region 2 5 Distribution of Agricultural Land 26 Energy Consumption in the Agricultural Sector 3 2 Energy Consumption in the LSCF Sector 3 3 Energy Consumption in the LSCF Sector by Crop 34 Energy Consumption for the Major LSCF Crops 35 Energetic Efficiency of Maize Production in 36 Zimbabwe's LSCF Sector and the United States Energetic Efficiency of Wheat Production in 37 Zimbabwe's LSCF Sector and the United States Energetic Efficiency of Wheat Production